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DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE 

LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE 


THE 


UNITED  STATES 
LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE 

1915 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1916 


GIFT  Of 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE 

LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE 


THE 


UNITED  STATES 
LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE 


1915 


\AX 


-tauiX 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1916 


11 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE, 

BUREAU  OF  LIGHTHOUSES, 

Washington,  December  1,  1915. 

This  pamphlet  is  published  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  general 
information  regarding  the  organization  and  operation  of  the  United 
States  Lighthouse  Service,  and  to  enable  the  Bureau  to  supply 
data  asked  for  in  inquiries  frequently  received.  It  has  been  compiled 
mainly  by  John  S.  Conway,  Deputy  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses. 

GEORGE  R.  PUTNAM, 

Commissioner. 
2 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

1.  Duties  and  organization 5 

2.  Jurisdiction 6 

3.  Cooperation 7 

4.  District  limits  and  offices 7 

5.  Aids  to  navigation , 11 

6.  History  and  growth  of  the  Lighthouse  Service 14 

7.  Development  of  lighthouse  work  in  Alaska 16 

8.  Types  of  construction  of  lighthouses 17 

9.  Lighting  apparatus  and  illuminants 30 

10.  Distinct  iveness  and  characteristics  of  lights 35 

11.  Visibility  and  candlepower  of  lights 36 

12.  Fog  signals 40 

13.  Buoys 46 

14.  River  lighting 53 

15.  Lighthouse  depots 55 

16.  Light  vessels 58 

17.  Lighthouse  tenders 66 

18.  Personnel  and  civil-service  systems 72 

19.  Light  keepers'  quarters 76 

20.  Saving  of  life  and  property 79 

21.  Lighting  of  bridges 79 

22.  Private  aids  to  navigation 80 

23.  Laws  for  protection  of  aids '    81 

24.  Publications 82 

25.  Engineering  and  fiscal  matters 84 

26.  Exhibits  of  the  Lighthouse  Service 91 

27.  Past  and  present  officers  of  the  Service 93 

3 


THE  UNITED  STATES  LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE,  1915. 


1.  DUTIES  AND  ORGANIZATION. 

The  United  States  Lighthouse  Service  is  charged  with  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  aids  to  navigation,  and  with  all  equip- 
ment and  work  incident  thereto,  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States. 
The  term  "aids  to  navigation"  comprises  all  land  and  sea  marks 
established  or  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  navigation  of 
vessels,  and  includes  light  stations,  light  vessels,  fog  signals,  buoys 
of  all  kinds,  minor  lights,  and  day  beacons. 

There  is  an  office  in  Washington,  known  as  the  Bureau  of  Light- 
houses, which  is  the  executive  center  of  the  Service,  under  the  Com- 
missioner of  Lighthouses  and  the  Deputy  Commissioner.  There  are 
in  this  office  an  engineering  construction  division,  under  the  chief 
constructing  engineer;  a  naval  construction  division,  under  the 
superintendent  of  naval  construction;  a  hydrographic  division,  under 
an  assistant  engineer;  and  the  general  office  force,  under  the  chief 
clerk. 

The  Service  outside  of  Washington  is  divided  into  19  lighthouse 
districts,  each  of  which  is  under  the  charge  of  a  lighthouse  inspector. 
In  each  district  there  is  a  central  office  at  a  location  selected  on 
account  of  either  its  maritime  importance  or  its  geographical  posi- 
tion. Attached  to  each  district  office  is  a  technical  force  for  the 
construction  and  upkeep  of  both  land  structures  and  floating  equip- 
ment, and  also  a  clerical  force,  with  a  chief  clerk  and  assistants,  for 
the  work  of  the  district.  The  principal  technical  assistant  to  the 
inspector  is  the  superintendent,  and  there  are  assistant  superin- 
tendents and  aids  as  required  by  the  size  of  the  district.  In  the 
field  are  construction  and  repair  parties  under  foremen,  and  in  a 
number  of  districts  there  are  mechanicians  who  attend  to  special 
repairs  and  installations  of  apparatus.  All  of  this  force  is  composed 
of  civilians,  except  that  in  the  three  river  districts  officers  of  the 
Corps  of  Engineers  who  are  in  charge  of  river  improvements  act  also 
as  lighthouse  inspectors. 

One  or  more  lighthouse  depots  are  conveniently  located  in  each 
district  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  district  in  the  matter  of  storing 
and  distributing  supplies  and  apparatus.  In  addition  to  the  various 
district  depots,  there  is  in  the  third  lighthouse  district,  on  Staten 
Island,  New  York  Harbor,  a  general  lighthouse  depot,  where  many 
of  the  supplies  for  the  whole  Service  are  purchased  and  stored  and 

5 


6  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

sent  out  Tor  dis-tributioa,  a-.ul  whore  much  of  the  special  apparatus 
of  the  Service  is  manufactured  or  repaired,  and  where  also  there  is 
carried  on  various  technical  work  in  the  way  of  testing  apparatus 
and  supplies  and  designing  or  improving  apparatus. 

Each  district  is  provided  with  one  or  more  lighthouse  tenders  for 
the  purpose  of  distributing  supplies  to  the  various  stations  and  light 
vessels  and  for  transportation  of  materials  for  construction  or  repair, 
for  the  placing  and  care  of  the  buoyage  system  in  the  district,  and  for 
transporting  the  inspector  and  other  officers  of  the  Service  on  official 
inspections  of  stations  and  vessels  and  on  other  official  duty. 

2.  JURISDICTION. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  extends  over  the  Atlantic, 
Gulf,  Great  Lakes,  and  Pacific  coasts,  the  principal  interior  rivers, 
Alaska,  Porto  Bico,  and  Hawaii,  and  all  other  territory  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  with  the  exception  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  Panama.  In  the  Philippine  Islands  the  lighthouse  service 
is  maintained  by  the  insular  government  and  supported  entirely 
out  of  the  revenues  of  the  islands.  At  Panama  the  canal  government 
has  charge  of  the  lighting  of  the  canal  and  approaches  under  the 
general  appropriations  for  the  canal. 

All  the  work  of  establishing  and  maintaining  the  aids  to  navigation 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  is  performed  directly 
by  that  service  through  district  organizations,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  minor  aids,  which  are  maintained  by  contract,  and  the  exception 
of  the  American  Samoan  Islands,  the  island  of  Guam,  and  Guanta- 
namo,  Cuba,  where  the  aids  are  maintained  under  the  supervision  of 
the  naval  commandants  under  allotments  made  from  the  appropria- 
tions for  the  Lighthouse  Service.  The  Lighthouse  Service  also  has 
supervision  over  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  private  aids 
to  navigation  and  the  lighting  of  bridges  over  navigable  waters  of 
the  United  States. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  States  assists  in  the  maintenance  of 
but  one  lighthouse  outside  of  its  territory,  this  being  at  Cape  Spartel, 
Morocco.  This  light  is  maintained  in  accordance  with  the  conven- 
tion between  Morocco  and  the  United  States,  Austria,  Belgium,  Spain, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Portugal,  and  Sweden,  in 
force  since  March  12,  1867.  The  lighthouse  was  constructed  at  the 
expense  of  Morocco,  but  it  is  maintained  by  the  other  contracting 
powers.  The  annual  appropriation  by  the  United  States  for  this 
purpose  is  $325,  and  it  is  not  under  the  control  of  the  Jjighthouse 
Service. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  over  rivers  not  included 
in  tidewater  navigation  is  restricted  to  such  as  are  specifically  named 
in  the  various  acts  of  Congress.  These  now  include  practically  all 
the  important  navigable  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  country. 


DISTRICT   LIMITS  AND  OFFICES.  7 

3.  COOPERATION. 

In  performing  its  duties,  the  Lighthouse  Service  cooperates  actively 
with  all  other  branches  of  the  Government  engaged  in  related  work. 
Notices  to  mariners  are  issued  jointly  with  the  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  and  information  affecting  charts  is  supplied  to  that  office  for 
publication.  Similar  information  is  furnished  the  Lake  Survey  and 
other  offices  publishing  charts.  Cooperation  is  had  with  the  Corps  of 
Engineers,  War  Department,  in  connection  with  river  and  harbor 
improvements,  as  to  special  aids  to  navigation  maintained  for  such 
works,  information  of  improvements  that  will  affect  aids  to  navigation, 
the  marking  of  river  channels,  lighting  of  wrecks,  etc.  Information 
as  to  deficiencies  in  aids  is  received  from  the  Hydrographic  Office  and 
from  naval  vessels,  and  from  other  maritime  services  of  the  Govern- 
ment. The  Public  Health  Service  aids  in  matters  of  sanitation 
affecting  lighthouse  vessels  and  stations,  the  Bureau  of  Standards  in 
the  design  of  radio  apparatus  and  in  special  tests,  the  Forest  Service 
in  the  growing  and  management  of  timber  on  lighthouse  reservations, 
the  Steamboat-Inspection  Service  in  the  inspection  of  steam  plants  of 
vessels,  etc.  The  Lighthouse  Service  supplies  information  respecting 
aids  to  navigation  to  all  branches  of  the  Government  having  need  for 
this  data  and  cooperates  in  the  placing  of  buoys  for  special  purposes. 

Arrangements  are  in  effect  with  the  War  Department  for  the  assign- 
ment of  lighthouse  tenders  from  time  to  time  for  mine-planting 
practice,  and  in  the  event  of  necessity  the  Lighthouse  Service  is 
prepared  to  turn  over  to  the  Navy  Department,  with  the  approval  of 
the  President,  such  tenders  as  may  be  required  in  military  operations. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  special  effort  is  made  to  consult  the 
needs  of  merchant  shipping  as  to  aids  to  navigation.  Applications 
from  maritime  interests  for  establishing  or  improving  aids  are  care- 
fully considered,  and  all  matters  involving  extensive  changes  are 
taken  up  with  such  interests  before  action  is  decided  upon. 

Mariners  and  others  interested  are  invited  to  give  prompt  infor- 
mation to  the  district  lighthouse  inspectors,  or  by  direct  communi- 
cation to  the  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses,  of  all  cases  of  injury  to 
or  unsatisfactory  condition  or  incorrect  position  of  any  aid  to  navi- 
gation, or  of  the  necessity  for  additional  aids,  or  of  any  existing  aid 
not  needed,  and  of  all  cases  where  the  lights  are  not  exhibited  punc- 
tually at  sunset  and  extinguished  at  sunrise. 

4.  DISTRICT  LIMITS  AND  OFFICES. 

The  limits  of  the  lighthouse  districts  are  as  follows : 
First  district. — From  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  St.  Croix  River, 
Me.,  the  northeastern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  to  and  includ- 
ing Hampton  Harbor,  N.  H.     It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation  on 


8 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE;    1915. 


DISTRICT   LIMITS   AND   OFFICES.  9 

the  seacoast  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and  on  all  tidal  waters 
between  the  limits  named. 

Second  district. — From  Hampton  Harbor,  N.  H.,  to  Elisha  Ledge, 
off  Warren  Point,  R.  I.,  but  not  including  either  the  harbor  or  the 
ledge.  It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  seacoast  and  tidal 
waters  of  Massachusetts,  except  on  the  Taunton  River  and  that  part 
of  Mount  Hope  Bay  lying  within  the  State  boundary. 

Third  district. — From  Elisha  Ledge,  off  Warren  Point,  R.  I.,  to 
Cape  May,  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  excepting  Cape  May  Light- 
house, and  to  a  point  on  the  coast  opposite  Rehoboth,  Del.,  excepting 
Cape  Henlopen  Lighthouse  and  Hen  and  Chickens  Shoal.  It  em- 
braces all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  coasts  of  Rhode  Island,  Connec- 
ticut, New  York,  and  New  Jersey  northward  of  Cape  May,  including 
Northeast  End,  Five-Fathom  Bank,  and  Overfalls  light  vessels, 
and  McCries  Shoal,  and  on  all  tidal  waters  tributary  to  the  sea  or 
Long  Island  Sound  between  the  limits  named,  together  with  the  aids 
on  Whitehall  Narrows,  and  on  the  United  States  waters  of  Lakes 
Champlain  and  Memphremagog. 

Fourth  district. — From  and  including  Cape  May  Light  Station,  on 
the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  to  and  including  Fenwick  Island  Light 
Station  on  the  coast  of  Delaware.  It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation 
on  the  seacoast  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  between  the  points 
named,  the  entrance  to  Delaware  Bay,  Delaware  Bay  and  River,  and 
the  waters  tributary  thereto,  but  does  not  include  McCries  Shoal, 
Overfalls  Light  Vessel,  and  the  aids  to  navigation  seaward  thereof, 
nor  the  shoals  seaward  of  Fenwick  Island. 

Fifth  district. — From  (but  not  including)  Fenwick  Island  Light 
Station,  on  the  coast  of  Delaware,  to  and  including  New  River  Inlet, 
N.  C.  It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation  off  the  seacoast  of  Dela- 
ware seaward  of  Fenwick  Island,  on  the  seacoasts  of  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, and  North  Carolina  between  the  limits  named,  all  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  the  sounds  of  North  Carolina,  and  tributary  waters. 

Sixth  district. — From  (but  does  not  include)  New  River  Inlet,  N.  C., 
to  and  including  Hillsboro  Inlet  Light  Station,  Fla.  It  embraces  all 
aids  to  navigation  on  the  seacoasts,  bays,  sounds,  harbors,  rivers, 
and  other  tidal  waters  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
and  Florida  between  the  limits  named. 

Seventh  district. — From  a  point  just  south  of  Hillsboro  Inlet  Light 
Station  to  and  including  Cedar  Keys,  Fla.  It  embraces  all  aids  to 
navigation  on  the  sea  and  Gulf  coasts  of  Florida,  Florida  Keys,  and 
on  other  waters  tributary  to  the  sea  and  Gulf  between  the  limits 
named. 

Eighth  district. — From  (but  not  including)  Cedar  Keys,  Fla.,  to 
the  southern  boundary  of  Texas.  It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation 
on  the  Gulf  coast  of  the  United  States  and  tidal  waters  tributary  to 


10  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

the  Gulf  between  the  limits  named,  together  with  those  on  the 
Mississippi  River  below  and  including  New  Orleans,  and  on  Grand 
Lake  and  Lake  Chicot. 

Ninth  district. —The  island  of  Porto  Rico  and  the  adjacent  islands 
and  other  islands  and  stations  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  the 
West  Indies. 

Tenth  district. — From  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Regis  River,  St.  Law- 
rence River,  N.  Y.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Detroit  River.  It  embraces 
all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  United  States  shores  and  waters  of 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  and  the  upper  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  the  Niagara  River,  excepting  aids  to  navigation  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Detroit  River. 

Eleventh  district. — From  and  including  all  aids  to  navigation  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Detroit  River,  Mich.,  to  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Superior.  It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  United  States 
shores  and  waters  of  Lakes  St.  Clair,  Huron,  and  Superior,  the 
Detroit  River,  including  the  mouth,  the  St.  Clair  and  St.  Marys 
rivers,  and  that  part  of  the  Straits  of  Mackinac  lying  to  the  eastward 
of  a  line  drawn  across  the  straits  just  to  the  eastward  of  Old  Mackinac 
Point  Light  Station,  Mich. 

Twelfth  district. — Includes  all  aids  to  navigation  on  Lake  Michigan, 
Green  Bay,  and  tributary  waters  lying  west  of  a  line  drawn  across 
the  Straits  of  Mackinac  just  east  of  Old  Mackinac  Point  Light  Station, 
Mich. 

Thirteenth  district. — The  Mississippi  River  from  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River;  the  Minnesota  River  from 
the  head  of  navigation  to  its  mouth;  the  Illinois  River  from  the 
head  of  navigation  to  its  mouth;  the  Osage  River  from  the  head  of 
navigation  to  its  mouth;  the  Gasconade  River  from  the  head  of 
navigation  to  its  mouth ;  the  Missouri  River  from  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion to  its  mouth;  St.  Croix  River  and  Lake;  Lake  Traverse;  and 
includes  all  aids  to  navigation  within  these  limits  and  navigable 
rivers  tributary  thereto. 

Fourteenth  district. — The  Ohio  River  from  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  to 
Cairo,  111.;  the  Tennessee  River  from  the  head  of  navigation  to  its 
mouth;  the  Kanawha  River  from  the  head  of  navigation  to  its 
mouth;  and  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation  within  these  limits  and 
navigable  rivers  tributary  thereto. 

Fifteenth  district. — The  Mississippi  River  from  and  including  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri  River  to  New  Orleans,  La.;  the  Red  River 
from  the  head  of  navigation  to  its  mouth;  and  includes  all  aids  to 
navigation  within  these  limits  and  navigable  rivers  tributary  thereto. 

Sixteenth  district. — From  the  boundary  between  Alaska  and  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  to  the  boundary  between  Alaska  and  Siberia. 
It  embraces  all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  seacoast,  bays,  rivers,  and 
other  tidal  waters  of  Alaska. 


AIDS   TO    NAVIGATION. 


11 


Seventeenth  district. — From  the  boundary  between  California  and 
Oregon  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States.  It  embraces 
all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  seacoast  of  Oregon  and  Washington, 
on  the  United  States  waters  of  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  Wash- 
ington Sound,  and  the  Strait  of  Georgia,  and  on  the  tidal  waters 
tributary  to  the  sea,  straits,  and  sounds  between  the  limits  named. 

Eighteenth  district. — From  the  boundary  between  California  and 
Mexico  to  the  boundary  between  California  and  Oregon.  It  em- 
braces all  aids  to  navigation  on  the  seacoast,  bays,  rivers,  and  other 
tidal  waters  of  California.  . 

Nineteenth  district. — Embraces  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the  Midway 
Islands,  the  island  of  Guam,  and  the  American  Samoan  Islands,  and 
includes  all  aids  to  navigation  in  the  waters  thereof. 

The  location  of  each  district  office,  with  the  address  of  the  light- 
house inspector,  is  given  in  the  following  table : 


District. 

Address. 

District. 

Address. 

1st  

2d... 

Portland.  Me.,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building. 
Boston.  Mass..  Customhouse. 

llth. 
12th.    . 

Detroit,  Mich.,  Post  Office  Building. 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Federal  Building. 

3d  

Tompkinsville,  N.  Y. 

13th.     . 

Rock  Island,  111.,  Federal  Building. 

4th 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Post  Office  Building. 

14th.     . 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Customhouse. 

5th... 

Baltimore,  Md.,  New  Customhouse. 

15th.     . 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Customhouse. 

6th 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  Old  Post  Office  Build- 

16th.    . 

Ketchikan,  Alaska. 

7th... 

ing. 
Key  West,  Fla. 

17th.     . 
18th.     . 

Portland,  Oreg.,  Customhouse. 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Customhouse. 

8th 

New  Orleans,  La.,  Customhouse. 

19th.     . 

Honolulu,   Hawaii,   McCandless   Build- 

9th   

San  Juan,  P.  R. 

ing. 

10th  

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Federal  Building. 

5.  AIDS  TO  NAVIGATION. 

The  table  following  gives  a  summary  of  the  14,544  aids  to  naviga- 
tion, under  each  principal  class,  in  commission  on  June  30,  1915: 

Lighted  aids: 

Lights  (other  than  minor  lights)  ...........................  1,  662 

Minor  lights  .............................................  2,  837 

Light-vessel  stations  ......................................  53 

Gas  buoys  ...............................................  479 

Float  lights  ..............................................  124 

Total  ..................................................  5,  155 


Unlighted  aids: 
Fog  signals 
Submarine  signals 
Whistling  buoys,  unlighted 
Bell  buoys,  unlighted 


527 
50 
.  .......................  86 

237 
Other  buoys  .............................................     6,  488 

Day  beacons  .......  :  ......................................     2,  001 

Total  .................................................  -.     9,  389 


Grand  total 14,  544 


12  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

Grouped  according  to  the  fixed  or  floating  character  of  the  aids, 
the  following  tabulation  may  be  made: 

Lighted  fixed  aids 4, 499 

Unlighted  fixed  aids 2, 478 

Total  fixed  aids. . .  6, 977 


Lighted  floating  aids 656 

Unlighted  floating  aids 6,  911 

Total  floating  aids 7, 567 

Grand  total 14,544 

The  class  described  as  " Lights  (other  than  minor) ';  includes  major 
lights  classified  under  the  Fresnel  system  of  orders,  which  will  be 
described  more  fully  in  another  place,  range  lenses,  reflectors,  and  lens 
lanterns.  (See  p.  31.)  There  are  744  stations  with  resident  keepers, 
provided  with  dwellings,  and  in  many  cases  these  keepers  have  charge 
not  only  of  the  principal  light  but  also  such  other  lights  in  the  vicinity 
as  may  be  conveniently  cared  for  from  the  same  station. 

The  number  of  keepers  varies  from  one  to  five,  according  to  circum- 
stances, and  the  number  of  stations  having  more  than  one  keeper 
is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Five-keeper  stations 3 

Four-keeper  stations 28 

Three-keeper  stations 167 

Two-keeper  stations 238 

Total  stations  with  more  than  one  keeper 436 

The  term  " minor  light"  includes  post  lights  and  small  lights 
generally  not  attended  as  a  rule  by  resident  keepers.  These  lights 
are  usually  cared  for  by  persons  living  in  the  vicinity,  who  are  not 
obliged  to  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  work  and  who  sometimes 
have  several  lights,  if  conveniently  located,  in  their  charge.  This 
type  of  light  is  commonly  used  on  inland  rivers  and  particularly 
on  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries. 

Light  vessels  are  used  as  a  rule  to  mark  offshore  dangers,  or  the 
approaches  to  harbors  or  channels,  where  lighthouses  would  not  be 
feasible  or  economical.  They  are  more  fully  described  on  page  58. 

Gas  buoys  are  used  to  mark  important  channels  or  shoals  or  as 
general  guides  for  navigation.  Many  improvements  have  been 
made  in  this  type  of  aid,  and  they  are  considered  among  the  most 
valuable  of  recent  developments  in  modern  coast  lighting. 

Float  lights  are  usually  small  lights  borne  on  a  float  or  rsffj.  They 
are  employed  for  less  important  places  where  more  convenient  or 
economical  than  lighted  buoys  and  where  the  expense  of  providing  a 
foundation  for  a  fixed  structure  would  not  be  warranted. 

Fog  signals  include  various  types  of  aerial  sound-producing  appara- 
tus for  use  in  foggy  or  thick  weather.  They  embrace  various  types  of 


AIDS    TO    NAVIGATION. 


13 


whistles,  sirens,  or  horns,  actuated  by  steam  or  compressed  air,  and 
bells,  operated  by  machinery  of  various  types  or  by  hand. 

Submarine  signals  are  auxiliary  fog  signals  consisting  of  bells 
operated  under  water.  They  are  commonly  a  feature  of  light-vessel 
equipment,  but  are  employed  also  at  some  light  stations  or  attached 
to  buoys. 

Whistling  and  bell  buoys,  as  the  names  imply,  are  buoys  fitted 
with  sound-producing  apparatus  operated  by  the  motion  of  the  buoy 
in  the  sea.  Whistling  buoys  are  more  efficient  in  rough  outside 
waters  and  bell  buoys  are  more .  commonly  used  in  harbors  or  inside 
waters.  Further  information  in  regard  to  both  types  appears  on 
page  50. 

Other  buoys  include  cans,  nuns,  and  spars  of  various  types,  and 
are  the  most  extensively  used  of  all  aids.  They  are  more  frequently 
employed  in  channels  and  inside  waters  generally,  and  are  described 
more  fully  on  page  49. 

Day  beacons  include  minor  fixed  structures  not  bearing  a  light. 
They  are  of  various  types,  the  most  common  being  a  post  or  spindle 
bearing  a  target  or  some  other  object  of  a  distinctive  shape  and  color. 

The  number  of  light  stations,  light  vessels,  and  fog  signals  of  the 
world,  as  listed  in  the  British  Admiralty  List  of  Lights  for  1915,  is 
approximately  as  given  in  the  table  below.  The  statistics  do  not 
include  the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America  nor  rivers  above  the  limit 
of  seagoing  navigation,  and  the  lights  are  given  in  greater  complete- 
ness for  some  countries  than  for  others. 


Continents. 

Light 
stations. 

Light 
vessels. 

Fog 
signals. 

Europe  

7,335 

192 

779 

North  America 

2,913 

49 

645 

Asia 

1  355 

36 

116 

Australia  and  Oceania.  .  . 

746 

3 

21 

Africa  

519 

0 

10 

South  America 

358 

10 

15 

Total  .  .. 

13,  226 

290 

1,586 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  similar  statistics  of  light  stations  for 
about  1888  (The  Modern  Lighthouse  Service,  Johnson). 


Continents. 

Light 
stations. 

Continents. 

Light 
stations. 

Europe 

3  309 

Africa                           

219 

North  A  merica 

1  435 

South  America 

167 

Asia 

476 

Oceania. 

319 

Total  

5,925 

The  lists  for  1915  show  that  the  United  States  Lighthouse  Service 
has  under  its  charge  materiaUy  more  lights  and  fog  signals  than  any 
other  organization,  and  this  would  be  numerically  increased  if  there 
were  included  the  lights  on  the  lakes  and  rivers,  and  if  aU  aids  to 
navigation  were  counted,  including  buoys  and  unlighted  beacons. 


14  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

6.  HISTORY  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE. 

The  history  of  lighthouses  in  the  United  States  dates  back  to 
1715-16,  when  the  first  lighthouse  on  this  continent  was  built  at  the 
entrance  to  Boston  Harbor  by  the  Province  of  Massachusetts.  This 
light  was  supported  by  light  dues  on  all  incoming  and  outgoing  ves- 
sels, except  coasters.  Several  other  lighthouses  were  built  by  the 
colonies.  Congress,  by  the  act  of  August  7,  1789,  authorized  the 
maintenance  of  lighthouses  and  other  aids  to  navigation  at  the  expense 
of  the  United  States.  There  were  at  that  date  eight  lights  in  opera- 
tion maintained  by  the  colonies.  These,  together  with  others  com- 
pleted later,  13  in  all,  were  ceded  to  the  General  Government  by  the 
States.  The  Lighthouse  Service  of  the  United  States  is  supported 
entirely  by  appropriations  out  of  the  general  revenues  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  United  States  lighthouses  have  been  free  to  vessels 
of  all  nations  from  1789  to  the  present  time.  There  is  no  system  of 
light  dues,  as  is  the  case  in  a  number  of  foreign  maritime  countries. 

The  maintenance  of  lighthouses,  buoys,  etc.,  was  placed  under  the 
Treasury  Department,  and  up  to  1820  was  directed  personally  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  except  for  two  intervals  when  super- 
vision was  assigned  by  him  to  the  Commissioner  of  the  Revenue. 
In  1820  the  superintendence  of  the  lights  devolved  upon  the  Fifth 
Auditor  of  the  Treasury,  who  was  popularly  known  as  the  General 
Superintendent  of  Lights  and  who  continued  in  charge  thereof  until 
1852,  when  the  United  States  Lighthouse  Board,  consisting  of  officers 
of  the  Navy  and  Army  and  civilians,  was  organized,  with  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  as  ex  officio  president  of  the  board.  The  board 
selected  from  its  own  number  a  member  to  act  as  chairman. 

The  Lighthouse  Service  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of 
Commerce  on  July  1,  1903.  On  July  1,  1910,  the  Lighthouse  Board 
was  terminated  and  the  present  Bureau  of  Lighthouses  established. 

The  eight  colonial  lights  in  the  order  of  their  establishment  were: 

Boston,  on  Little  Brewster  Island,  Mass 1716 

Brant  Point,  on  Nantucket  Island,  Mass 1746 

Beavertail,  on  Conanicut  Island,  R.  I 1761 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.,  entrance  to  New  York  Bay 1764 

Cape  Henlopen,  Del.,  entrance  to  Delaware  Bay 1764 

Charleston,  on  Morris  Island,  S.  C • 1767 

Gurnet,  near  Plymouth,  Mass 1769 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  entrance  to  harbor 1789 

All  of  these  are  still  in  existence,  although  with  many  improve- 
ments; at  Sandy  Hook  and  Cape  Henlopen,  however,  tl%  original 
towers  are  still  in  use. 

The  gradual  increase  in  the  number  of  aids  to  navigation  from  1790 
to  1910,  by  10-year  periods,  and  for  each  year  since  1910,  is  shown  in 
the  following  table: 


HISTOKY   AND   GROWTH    OF    THE    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE. 


15 


Year. 

Lighted  aids. 

Unlighted  aids. 

ft 

B 

3 

9 

1 

S 

i 
? 

«J 

s" 
3 

^ 
®    . 

SI 

«*§ 

Jq 

2 

§ 

s 

fl 

rf 

'a 

.§> 

'w 

I 

§ 
'§» 

12 
d 

CQ 

Ml 
f| 

2£ 
E 

& 

Z3 

• 
W 

| 

1 
1 

S 

1 

si 

•si 

II 

<5 

1790 

12 

12 
23 
42 
60 
153 
264 
332 
472 
560 
1,523 
2,450 
3,163 
3,992 
4,211 
4,516 
4,739 
5,004 
5,155 

(0)2 

2 
3 
12 
26 
49 
111 
117 
194 
254 
393 
457 
506 
510 
520 
519 
527 

(0) 

77 
117 
156 
350 
800 
1,034 
1,738 
2,446 
3,115 
4,143 
4,749 
5,783 
5,821 
5,992 
6,  174 
6,330 
6,488 

(a) 

22 
30 
60 
90 
121 
220 
324 
355 
372 
496 
1,120 
1,295 
1,474 
1,655 
1,978 
2,001 

a 

141 

189 
422 
916 
1.204 
2,074 
2,892 
3,694 
4,904 
5,828 
7,669 
7,939 
8,308 
8,695 
9,194 
9,389 

(0) 

107 
183 
249 
575 
1,180 
1,536 
2,550 
3,456 
5,221 
7,354 
8,991 
11,661 
12,150 
12,824 
13,  434 
14,198 
14,544 

1800.... 
1810.... 
1820.  .  .  . 
1830.... 
1840.... 
1850.... 
1860 

23 

42 
59 
137 
234 
297 
425 

i 

16 

30 

35 

47 

9 
9 
9 
75 
120 
178 
189 
205 
216 
233 
237 

1870.  .  .  . 
1880.  .  .  . 
1890.... 
1900.... 
1910.... 
1911.... 
1912.... 
1913.... 
1914.... 
1915.... 

528 
661 
833 
,243 
,397 
,424 
,475 
,531 
1,590 
1,662 

32 

819 
1,550 
1,745 
2,256 
2,362 
2,552 
2,666 
2,791 
2,837 

31 
26 
44 
54 
51 
51 
53 
52 
53 

12 
34 
38 
60 
87 
92 
101 
118 
124 

25 

60 
70 

89 
88 
84 
84 
86 
86 

7 
93 
225 
287 
346 
388 
453 
479 

42 
40 
43 
46 
48 
50 

a  No  definite  information  on  record. 

NOTES.— The  information  prior  to  1850  should  be  considered  approximate  only,  and  the  figures  given 
may  be  regarded  generally  as  somewhat  less  than  the  actual  numbers. 

Minor  lights  and  float  lights  originally  covered  only  post  lights  on  the  Mississippi  River  and  tributaries, 
first  reported  in  1875  (280  minor,  21  float). 

Lighted  buoys  first  reported  in  1884  (4  buoys). 

Early  records  of  fog  signals  compiled  from  light  lists  and  other  sources  and  are  somewhat  indefinite. 
Whistles  not  regularly  reported  prior  to  1872  (33  whistles);  bells  not  prior  to  1882  (115  bells). 

Submarine  bells  first  reported  in  1906  (5  bells). 

Whistling  buoys  first  reported  in  1876  (4  buoys). 

Bell  buoys  first  reported  regularly  in  1881  (11  buoys).  Bell  buoys  were  introduced  about  1855  (9  buoys). 
Bell  boats,  filling  practically  same  purpose,  were  used  at  a  much  earlier  date,  although  no  definite  records 
appear. 

Buoy  boats,  consisting  of  a  decked  scow  about  20  feet  long  by  7  feet  beam,  carrying  a  light  mast  or  perch, 
were  also  in  use  in  the  early  days. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  aids  to  navigation  maintained  by 
the  United  States  Lighthouse  Service  is  shown  graphically  for  the 
last  15  years  in  the  following  diagram,  as  well  as  the  range  in  general 
appropriations  for  maintenance  during  the  same  period. 


JUK 


E3tiaeMBoiAr*rt& 

based  on  fftfacfual  results  • 


14.000 


13.000 


6.000000  12m 


tissvimifta. 


for 


•iooo.ooou.ooo 


\ 


Ah  is  /o  Naw,  lah'ot 


/  Af,  oropr  iatioi 


4.00QOOO  B.OOO 


f/XAL  Y£Aft  IfOI     /W2    M03    J1Q4     l<?05   /406    1407    HOB    /<KW   WO    ff//     W: 

U.5.  Lighthouse  Service 
Number. of  Aids  to  Nayfgah'cn  and  Annual  Appropriations 

If  01— 1417 


M3    W4     Ntf    W6 


16  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

7.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  LIGHTHOUSE  WORK  IN  ALASKA. 

The  first  aids  to  navigation  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  in  Alaska 
were  established  in  the  spring  of  1884  (14  iron  buoys)  and  the  first 
light  in  June,  1895.  The  following  table  gives  the  total  number  of 
aids  to  navigation  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  years  named  (June  30  in 
each  case)  illustrating  the  progress  of  the  Service  in  the  Territory: 


Aids. 

1890 

1895 

1900 

1905 

1910 

1915 

Lights 

0 

1 

1 

15 

37 

112 

Fog  signals 

0 

0 

0 

s 

9 

10 

Buoys  .  

27 

57 

57 

68 

84 

167 

Daymarks 

15 

26 

25 

30 

30 

49 

Total 

42 

84 

83 

121 

160 

338 

The  112  lights  are  of  the  following  classes:  10  lighthouses  with 
resident  keepers,  62  unattended  flashing  acetylene  lights,  34  minor 
lights,  and  6  float  lights,  the  use  of  the  latter-named  being  confined 
to  narrow  channels  or  harbors  where  a  small  light  answers  all  require- 
ments of  navigation. 

Special  attention  has  been  given  to  increasing  and  improving  the 
lights  and  buoys  in  Alaska,  as  shown  by  the  table  above,  which  indi- 
cates an  increase  of  203  per  cent  in  the  number  of  lights  and  111  per 
cent  in  the  total  number  of  aids  during  the  past  five  years. 

There  has  been  a  considerable  increase  of  shipping  to  this  Territory 
with  the  rapid  development  there  of  the  mining  and  other  industries. 
The  coast  line,  however,  is  of  great  extent  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  shipping.  It  is  a  difficult  coast  to  navigate  because  of  a  number 
of  causes  in  addition  to  the  incompleteness  of  the  system  of  aids  to 
navigation.  All  the  southern  and  more  frequented  portions  of  the 
Alaskan  coast  are  subject,  even  in  the  summer  months,  to  fog,  rain, 
and  storms;  the  coast  is  precipitous  and  rocky  and  hidden  dangers 
are  numerous;  there  is  a  great  rise  and  fall  of  tide,  resulting  in  strong 
tidal  currents;  the  traffic  is  new  and  mainly  restricted  to  only  a  part 
of  the  year,  so  that  it  is  difficult  for  navigators  to  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  region  and  conditions;  much  of  the  coast  has  not 
been  completely  surveyed  and  thorough  surveys  are  rendered  diffi- 
cult by  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  and  the  coast  is  so  abrupt  and  the 
depths  so  great  that  convenient  and  safe  anchorages  are  not  always 
available.  On  the  other  hand,  southeastern  Alaska  has  a  remarkable 
network  of  well-protected  inside  channels  in  large  part  sufficiently 
wide  and  deep  for  any  class  of  vessels,  and  has  numerous  small  har- 
bors. During  the  summer  season,  when  traffic  is  heavif$t,  there  is 
either  daylight  throughout  the  24  hours  or  the  time  of  darkness  is 
short,  thus  materially  aiding  navigation,  but  the  reverse  condition 
exists  in  winter,  because  of  the  northern  latitude.  The  immense  coast 
line  in  proportion  to  the  population  and  the  amount  of  shipping,  and 


TYPES   OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES.  17 

the  uncertainty  as  to  the  permanency  in  routes  of  traffic,  would  not 
warrant  the  Government  at  this  stage  of  development  of  the  Territory 
in  making  the  expenditures  necessary  to  mark  its  coasts  as  elaborately 
as  similar  coasts  in  older  and  more  settled  portions  of  the  United 
States. 

The  justice  of  the  demands  for  additional  aids  to  navigation  in 
Alaska  is,  however,  fully  recognized.  To  meet  these  real  needs, 
Alaska,  which  has  formerly  been  under  the  charge  of  the  district 
office  at  Portland,  Oreg.,  was  on  August  1,  1910,  made  a  separate 
lighthouse  district,  permitting  the  inspector  in  charge  to  give  his 
entire  attention  to  this  important  territory.  A  district  office  and 
depot  have  been  established  at  Ketchikan  and  office  and  construc- 
tion forces  have  been  organized  in  the  new  district. 

One  of  the  largest  tenders  in  the  service,  the  Kukui,  has  been  as- 
signed to  duty  in  Alaska,  and  a  still  larger  vessel,  the  Cedar,  is  now 
being  built  for  the  same  purpose.  The  new  tender  Fern  has  been 
constructed  especially  for  work  in  the  inside  waters  of  southeastern 
Alaska. 

Appropriations  for  special  works  in  Alaska  made  in  recent  years 
include  two  appropriations  of  $60,000  each,  made  by  the  acts  of 
March  4,  1911,  and  August  1,  1914,  for  aids  to  navigation  in  Alaska; 
$25,000  for  rebuilding  and  improving  Lincoln  Rock  Light  and  Fog 
Signal  (act  Mar.  4, 1911) ;  and  $115,000  for  establishing  Cape  St.  Elias 
Light  and  Fog  Signal  (act  Oct.  22,  1913).  In  addition  to  these 
special  works,  the  average  expenditures  from  general  appropriations 
for  the  support  of  the  service  in  ordinary  maintenance  and  better- 
ments have  averaged  about  $135,000  annually  for  the  past  two  years. 

8.  TYPES  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LIGHTHOUSES. 

The  type  of  construction  adopted  in  each  case  for  lighthouse  struc- 
tures depends  largely  on  the  importance  of  the  light  and  the  foundation 
conditions.  Brief  descriptions  of  the  various  types  more  commonly 
employed  are  as  follows: 

Post  lights  are  generally  a  single  timber  post,  with  a  shelf  or 
bracket  for  the  lantern.  In  some  cases  ladders  are  attached,  and  to 
assist  in  identifying  the  aid  by  day,  wooden  wing  boards  for  daymark 
purposes  are  frequently  added.  For  similar  construction  in  water, 
single  piles,  either  timber  or  concrete,  are  used.  A  small  service  box 
for  the  lantern  and  supplies  is  often  added. 

Where  the  light  is  of  more  importance,  framed  timber  towers  have 
been  used,  generally  built  with  four  posts  on  proper  foundations, 
battered  and  provided  with  the  necessary  framing  and  bracing,  with 
a  ladder  and  service  box.  Similar  structures  in  water  are  generally 
of  three  or  more  piles,  driven  on  a  batter  and  forming  a  cluster  at 
the  top. 

18247°— 16 2 


18 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Recent  improvements  along  this  line  include  structural  steel 
skeleton  towers,  also  similar  towers  of  iron  pipe.  Standard  plans 
have  been  prepared  for  each  of  these  types,  both  of  which  are  useful 

when  quickness  of  construction  is 
desired.  Each  type  is  square  in  plan 
and  strongly  braced,  with  due  pro- 
vision allowed  for  corrosion  in  pro- 
portioning the  sizes  of  the  members. 
For  similar  structures  in  water,  con- 
crete pile  foundation  structures  con- 
sisting of  four,  seven,  or  nine  piles, 
with  suitable  cast-iron  struts  and 
structural  bracing,  have  been  devel- 
oped and  standard  plans  prepared 
for  each  type. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  types, 
which  are  principally  adopted  for 
nonattended  lights,  mention  should 
be  made  of  unlighted  beacons,  or 
daymarks.  Some  of  these  may  be 
merely  a  pile  or  stake, -occasionally 
with  a  pointer  indicating  the  chan- 
nel; others  are  timber  structures  of 
various  designs,  carrying  a  target 
or  some  other  characteristic  feature  to  attract  attention;  others  are 
iron  or  steel  spindles  with  a  barrel  or  some  form  of  cage  work  at  the 
top,  and  some  older  types  are  monuments  of  stone.  A  type  recently 
developed  is  that  of  strongly  braced 
reinforced  concrete  tripods,  to  re- 
place old  wooden  tripods  destroyed 
by  the  sea.  In  some  localities,  par- 
ticularly on  rivers  in  California, 
where  fog  is  prevalent  part  of  the 
year,  echo  boards  are  used.  These 
are  rather  long  wall-like  structures 
with  projecting  wings,  to  permit 
steamers  obtaining  an  echo  from 
their  whistles  in  passing.  These 
sometimes  carry  a  post  light  on 
top  of  the  board. 

In  case  of  attended  lights  where 
resident  keepers  are  employed, 
which  may  be  considered  as  lighthouses  proper,  there  are  also  many 
types.  A  common  form,  frequently  used  for  harbor  or  lake  lights, 
is  a  combined  tower  and  dwelling  of  timber  or  brick  construction. 


Sand  Shoal  Inlet  Light,  Va. 


Petaluma  Creek  LigMt,  Cal. 


TYPES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES. 


19 


Larchmont  Breakwater  Light,  N.  Y. 


Sometimes  the  tower  only  is  of  masonry,  while  the  dwelling  is  frame. 
For  the  more  important  lights,  the  tower  is  detached  from  the  dwell- 
ings and  as  a  rule  is  of  fireproof  construction.  Most  of  the  older 

towers  of  this  type  are  built  of  brick 
or  stone  masonry,  with  stairways, 
lantern,  and  other  appurtenances 
of  cast  iron.  Others  of  a  more 
recent  type  have  a  structural  open 
framework  of  wrought  iron  or  steel, 
usually  with  an  inclosed  stair  well 
in  the  center.  In  still  more  recent 
years  reinforced  concrete  towers 
have  been  used  and  will  probably 
be  more  extensively  adopted  in 
the  future. 

A  completely  equipped  light  sta- 
tion on  a  land  site  usually  consists 
of  the  light  tower,  oil  house,  fog-signal  building,  keepers'  dwellings, 
workshop,  water  supply  and  drainage  systems,  landing  wharf,  boat- 
house  and  ways,  barn,  and  the  usual  outbuildings,  roads,  walks, 
and  fences;  although,  owing  to 
the  restricted  area  of  some  sites, 
several  of  these  purposes  may 
be  served  by  a  single  building. 
On  submarine  sites  the  whole  sta- 
tion is  frequently  confined  to  one 
structure. 

Where  not  built  on  rock,  the 
foundation  for  towers  on  land  sites 
is  usually  a  single  block  of  concrete 
resting  upon  the  foundation  soil, 
which  has  been  previously  exca- 
vated to  the  proper  depth.  Occa- 
sionally these  blocks  are  placed 
upon  a  timber  grillage  supported 
by  piles  for  sites  upon  low  or 
marshy  land,  and  in  all  cases  the 
block  is  extended  so  as  to  bring  the 
unit  pressures  within  the  bearing 
power  of  the  foundation  material. 
Many  lighthouses  at  the  entrances 
to  harbors  are  built  on  the  ends 
of  breakwaters  or  pierheads,  utilizing,  as  a  rule,  such  structures  as 
the  foundation.  In  such  cases  the  problem  is  not  essentially  dif- 


Fairport  West  Pier  Light,  Ohio. 


20 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


ferent  from  ordinary  shore  construction,  although  the  weight  of  the 
superstructure  must  be  considered  carefully  to  avoid  undue  settle- 
ment of  the  foundation,  providing  at  the  same  time  a  large  margin 
of  reserve  strength  to  resist  the  impact  of  the  waves  and  the  vibra- 
tions caused  thereby.  Also,  in  such  cases  the  necessary  restrictions 

of  available  space  require  that  the 
lighthouse  be  as  compact  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  the  case  of  lighthouses  on 
submerged  sites  the  engineering 
features  are  important  and  often 
present  great  difficulties  both  in 
design  and  construction.  Where 
the  bottom  is  rocky  or  hard,  the 
lighthouse  is  either  built  directly 
on  the  rock  or  on  a  pier.  When 
placed  on  a  ledge  of  rock,  the  la  Her 
is  usually  leveled  or  stepped  as  far 
as  practicable  and  the  structure 
heavily  rag  bolted  to  the  rock. 

Berkeley  Reef  Beacon,  Cal.  Two  important  lighthouses  On  the 

Great  Lakes  were  built  by  constructing  cofferdams,  pumping  out  the 
water  and  leveling  off  the  bed  rock  on  which  the  lighthouse  was 
built  of  cut  stone,  securely  fastened.  In  other  types,  particularly  on 


Duck  Rocks  Tripod,  Me. 


the  Great  Lakes,   cribs  filled  with  stone  are  placed  on  the  bottom 
and  capped  with  concrete  or  other  masonry. 

Important  wave-swept  lighthouses,  most  of 'which  are  masonry 
structures  founded  on  rocky  ledges  or  hard  bottom,  include  the  fol- 


lowing 20  stations: 


TYPES   OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES. 


21 


First  district: 

Saddleback  Ledge,  Me. 

Halfway  Rock,  Me. 

Ram  Island  Ledge,  Me. 

Whaleback,  Me. 
Second  district: 

The  Graves,  Mass. 

Minots  Ledge,  Mass. 

Bishop  and  Clerks,  Mass. 
Third  district: 

Race  Rock,  N.  Y. 

New  London  Ledge,  Conn. 

Stratford  Shoal,  N.  Y. 
Tenth  district: 

Toledo  Harbor,  Ohio. 


Eleventh  district: 

Port  Austin  Reef,  Mich. 

Spectacle  Reef,  Mich. 

Stannard  Rock,  Mich. 

Rock  of  Ages,  Mich. 
Twelfth  district: 

White  Shoal,  Mich. 

Racine  Reef,  Wis. 
Seventeenth  district: 

Tillamook  Rock,  Oreg. 
Eighteenth  district: 

St.  George  Reef,  Cal. 

Mile  Rocks,  Cal. 


Buffalo  Light  Station,  N.  Y. 

Other  severely  exposed  stations  which  are  not  given  in  the  fore- 
going list  include,  in  the  seventh  district,  Fowey  Rocks,  Carysfort 
Reef,  Alligator  Reef,  Sombrero  Key,  American  Shoal,  and  Rebecca 
Shoal,  Fla. ;  and,  in  the  eighth  district,  Ship  Shoal,  Southwest  Reef, 
and  Sabine  Bank,  La.  These  stations  appear  in  other  lists  on  pages 
25,  27,  and  28. 


22 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Other  stations  not  named  in  any  of  these  lists,  but  which  are 
noteworthy  because  of  their  unusual  remoteness  or  isolation,  include 
in  part  the  following  34  locations: 

Eighth  district — Continued. 

Matagorda,  Tex. 
Ninth  district: 

Mona  Island,  P.  R. 

Culebrita  Island,  P.  R. 

Muertos  Island,  P.  11. 
Sixteenth  district: 


First  district: 

Libby  Islands,  Me. 
Petit  Manan,  Me. 
Great  Duck  Island,  Me. 
Mount  Desert  Rock,  Me. 
Matinicus  Rock,  Me. 
Boon  Island,  Me. 
Isles  of  Shoals,  N.  H. 


Cape  Sarichef,  Alaska. 


Minots  Ledge  Light  Station.  Mass. 


Third  district: 

Falkner  Island,  Conn. 
Fifth  district: 

Cape  Hatteras,  N.  C. 

Cape  Lookout,  N.  C. 
Sixth  district: 

Cape  Remain,  S.  C. 

Hunting  Island,  S.  C. 

Cape  Canaveral,  Fla. 
Seventh  district: 

Dry  Tortugas,  Fla. 
Eighth  district: 

Cape  San  Bias,  Fla. 

Sand  Island,  Ala. 

Timbalier,  La. 


Scotch  Cap,  Alaska. 

Cape  Hinchinbrook,  Alaska. 

Lincoln  Rock,  Alaska. 
Seventeenth  district: 

Cape  Flattery,  Wash. 

Destruction  Island.  Wash. 

Cape  Blanco,  Greg. 
Eighteenth  district: 

Punta  Gorda,  Cal. 

Farallon,  Cal. 

Point  Sur,  Cal. 
Nineteenth  district: 

Makapuu  Point,  Hawaii :f 

Molokai,  Hawaii. 

Kilauea  Point.  Hawaii. 


TYPES   OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES.  23 

For  submarine  sites,  where  the  bottom  is  sand,  either  a  pile  or  cais- 
son foundation  is  commonly  employed.  The  screw  pile,  which  was 
frequently  employed  some  years  ago,  consists  of  a  pile  with  a  broad 
helicoidal  flange  on  the  foot,  which  is  bored  like  an  auger  into  the 
bottom,  thereby  greatly  increasing  the  bearing  power  of  the  pile  as  well 
as  anchoring  it  firmly.  The  caisson  type  usually  consists  of  a  cylinder 
from  21  to  35  feet  in  diameter,  built  up  of  cast-iron  plates,  and  sunk 
by  dredging  or  by  the  pneumatic  process  into  the  shoal  until  a  firm 


American  Shoal  Light  Station,  Fla. 

bearing  is  attained,  after  which  the  interior  is  solidly  filled  with 
concrete.  A  few  caissons  have  been  placed  on  rocks  or  ledges. 
Both  of  these  types  are  comparatively  modern,  the  first  screw- 
pile  structure  in  the  United  States  being  at  Brandywine  Shoal, 
Delaware  Bay,  lighted  in  1850,  and  the  first  pneumatic  caisson 
structure  being  at  Fourteen  Foot  Bank,  Delaware  Bay,  completed 
in  1887.  There  are  at  the  present  time  76  attended  lighthouses  on 
piles,  most  of  which  are  in  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Carolina  Sounds, 


24 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


and  46  on  caisson  foundations,  principally  on  the  north  and  middle 
Atlantic  coasts.  The  names  and  locations  of  such  lighthouses  are  as 
follows : 

ATTENDED    LIGHTHOUSES    ON    PILES. 


Second  district: 

^Narrows,  Mass. 
Third  district: 

*Long  Beach  Bar,  N.  Y. 

*Bridgeport  Harbor.  Conn. 


Fifth  district — Continued. 

Pages  Rock,  Va. 
*Bells  Rock,  Va. 
*Old  Plantation  Flats,  Vz 
*0herrystone,  Va. 


Croatan  Light  Station,  N.  C. 


Fourth  district: 

Mahon  River,  Del. 
Fifth  district: 

*Killick  Shoal,  Va. 
*Craney  Island,  Va. 
Nansemond  River,  Va. 
White  Shoal,  Va. 
Point  of  Shoals,  Va. 
York  Spit,  Va. 
*Deep  Water  Shoals,  Va. 
*Tue  Marshes,  Va. 


*Stingray  Point,  Va. 
*Bowlers  Rock,  Va. 
*Windmill  Point,  Va. 
^Tangier  Sound,  Va. 
*  James  Island,  Md. 

Somers  Cove,  Md. 
*Great  WLcomico  River.  Y 
*Ragged  Point,  Md. 
*Cobb  Point  Bar.  Md. 

Lower  Cedar  Point,  Md. 
*Mathias  Point  Shoal,  Md. 


*  Indicates  screw-pile  structures  (50). 


TYPES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES. 


25 


Fifth  district— Continued. 

Upper  Cedar  Point,  Md. 
*Maryland  Point,  Md. 
*Holland  Island  Bar,  Md. 
*Great  Shoals,  Md. 
*Sharkfm  Shoal,  Md. 
*Hooper  Strait,  Md. 
*Drum  Point,  Md. 

Chop  tank  River,  Md. 
*Thomas  Point  Shoal,  Md. 
*Greenbury  Point  Shoal,  Md. 

Love  Point,  Md. 


Fifth  district — Continued. 
*Harbor  Island  Bar,  N.  C. 
*Brant  Island  Shoal,  N.  C. 
*Pamlico  Point,  N.  C. 
*Neuse  River,  N.  C. 
Sixth  district: 

*Fort  Ripley  Shoal,  S.  C. 
Seventh  district: 

Fowey  Rocks,  Fla. 
Carysfort  Reef,  Fla. 
Alligator  Reef,  Fla. 
Sombrero  Key,  Fla. 


Hog  Island  Shoal  Light  Station,  R.  I. 


*Seven  Foot  Knoll,  Md. 

Hawkins  Point,  Md. 

North  River,  N.  C. 

Wade  Point,  N.  C. 
*Laurel  Point,  N.  C. 

Roanoke  River,  N.  C. 
*Croatan,  N.  C. 

Long  Shoal,  N.  C. 
*Hatteraa  Inlet,  N.  C. 
*Gull  Shoal,  N.  C. 
*Bluff  Shoal,  N.C. 
^Southwest  Point  Royal  Shoal,  N.C. 
*  Indicates  screw- 


American  Shoal,  Fla. 
*Sand  Key,  Fla. 

Rebecca  Shoal,  Fla. 
Eighth  district: 

Horn  Island,  Miss. 
*Cat  Island,  Miss. 
*Merrill  Shell  Bank,  Miss. 
*Lake  Borgne,  Miss. 
*New  Canal,  La. 

South  Pass  East  Jetty,  La. 

Amite  River,  La. 
*Ship  Shoal,  La. 
pile  structures  (50). 


26  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Kilauea  Point  Light  Station,  Kauai,  Hawaii. 


TYPES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES. 


27 


Eighth  district— Continued. 
*Southwest  Reef,  La. 
Oyster  Bayou,  La. 


Seventeenth  district: 

Desdemona  Sands,  Oreg. 
Willamette  River,  Oreg. 


Cape  Hatteras  Light  Station,  N.  C. 


*Galveston  Harbor,  Tex. 
*Red  Fish  Bar  Out,  Tex. 
*Half  Moon  Reef,  Tex. 
*Brazos  Santiago,  Tex. 


Eighteenth  district: 

Oakland  Harbor,  Cal. 
Southampton  Shoal,  Cal. 
Roe  Island,  Cal. 


Indicates  screw-pile  structures  (50). 


28 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


ATTENDED   LIGHTHOUSES    ON    CAISSONS. 


First  district: 

Lubec  Channel,  Me. 

Crabtree  Ledge,  Me. 

Goose  Rocks,  Me. 

Spring  Point  Ledge,  Me. 
Second  district: 

Deer  Island,  Mass. 

Duxbury  Pier,  Mass. 

Butler  Flats,  Mass. 
Third  district: 

Sakonnet,  R.  I. 

Hog  Island  Shoal,  K.  I 

Borden  Flats,  Mass. 

Whale  Rock,  R.  I. 
*Plum  Beach,  R.  I. 

Conimicut,  R.  I. 

Latimer  Reef,  N.  Y. 

Orient  Point,  N.  Y. 

Saybrook  Breakwater,  Conn. 

Southwest  Ledge,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Pecks  Ledge,  Conn. 

Greens  Ledge,  Conn. 

Cold  Spring  Harbor,  N.  Y. 

Stamford  Harbor,  Conn. 

West  Bank,  N.  Y. 

Old  Orchard  Shoal,  N.  Y. 


Third  district— Continued. 

Romer  Shoal,  N.  Y. 

Great  Beds,  N.  J. 

Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 

Rockland  Lake,  N.  Y. 
Fourth  district: 

Brandywine  Shoal,  Del. 
*Fourteen  Foot  Bank,  Del. 

Miah  Maull  Shoal,  N.  J. 
*Elbow  of  Cross  Ledge,  N.  J. 

Ship  John  Shoal,  N.  J. 
Fifth  district: 

*Thimble  Shoal,  Va. 

Newport  News  Middle  Ground,  Va. 
*Wolf  Trap,  Va. 
*Smith  Point,  Va. 
*Solomons  Lump,  Md. 
*Point  No  Point,  Md. 
*Hooper  Island,  Md. 

Sharps  Island,  Md. 

Bloody  Point  Bar,  Md. 

Sandy  Point,  Md. 
^Baltimore,  Md. 

Craighill  Channel  Front,  Md. 
Eighth  district: 

*$abine  Bank,  La. 


In  designing  lighthouse  structures,  particularly  towers,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  assume  the  wind,  wave,  current,  ice,  and  other  external 
pressures  at  the  maximum  in  each  instance,  as  lighthouses  are 
commonly  exposed  to  severe  action  from  the  elements.  The  usual 
procedure  in  determining  the  stability  of  a  tower  is  to  locate  the 
common  center  of  effort  of  alt  forces  acting  upon  the  structure  to 
overturn  it,  and  to  proportion  the  weights  (with  due  regard  for  the 
buoyancy  of  the  water  in  the  case  of  submarine  work)  so  that  the 
resultant  of  the  active  forces  and  the  net  weight  falls  properly  within 
the  outer  edge  of  the  base.  In  seeking  this  result  the  lateral  resist- 
ance of  the  soil  is  considered,  when  the  structure  penetrates  it  for 
some  distance,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  often  heavily  compressed  by 
a  large  deposit  of  riprap  and  offers  good  support.  The  superstruc- 
tures are  calculated  in  the  manner  commonly  employed  for  chimneys 
and  viaduct  bents,  with  the  exception  that  great  stiffness  and  rigidity 
must  be  provided,  as  excessive  vibrations  are  detrimental  to  the 
proper  operation  of  the  lamps  and  clocks  of  the  illuminating  appa- 
ratus. 


*  Indicates  caissons  sunk  by  pneumatic  process  (11). 


TYPES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LIGHTHOUSES. 


29 


Practically  all  the  usual  materials  of  construction  are  used  in 
building  lighthouses,  as  indicated  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  strchr 
as  stone  masonry,  brickwork,  concrete  (plain  and  reinforced),  framed 
timber,  and  structural  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel  in  various 
forms. 


Cape  Charles  Light  Station,  Va. 


The  heights  of  towers  vary  according  to  the  character  of  the  shore 
and  the  importance  of  the  light.  On  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  the 
beach  as  a  rule  is  low  and  presents  little  relief,  comparatively  tall 
towers  are  required  for  the  principal  coast  lights,  while  on  the  Pacific 


30 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


coast,  which  is  generally  bold  and  high,  a  low  tower  erected  on  a 
prominent  headland  is  generally  sufficient.  The  tallest  tower  in  the 
service  is  in  the  fifth  district,  at  Cape  Hatteras,  N.  C.,  and  is  200  feet 
high.  The  names  and  locations  of  20  towers  with  heights  of  150 
feet  and  over  are  as  follows,  in  the  order  of  height: 


Dis- 
trLt. 

Station. 

Height, 
top  of 
lantern 
above 
base. 

Dis- 
trict. 

Station. 

Height, 
t  >p  of 
lantern 
abwe 
base. 

5 

Cape  Hatteras  N.  C 

Feet. 
200 

3 

Barnegat,N.  J 

Feet. 
161 

5 

Hog  Island,  Va  

191 

6 

St.  Augustine,  Fla  

161 

5 

Cape  C  harles.  Va 

191 

3 

Shinnecock  Bay,X.  Y       

161 

8 

Pensacola  Fla 

171 

5 

Currituck  Beach.  N  C 

161 

3 

Absecon  N  J 

170 

5 

Cape  Lookout  N.C 

161 

4 

Cape  May,  N  J 

170 

5 

BDdie  Island,  >T.C 

161 

6 

Mosquito  Inlet  Fla 

168 

6 

Charleston  S  C 

161 

6 

Cape  Fear,  N.C.   . 

166 

6 

Cape  Romain,  S.  C  

161 

3 

Fire  Island,  N.  Y 

163 

7 

Dry  Tortu^as,  Fla 

157 

5 

Cape  Henry  Va 

163 

7 

Sombrero  Key  Fla 

153 

9.  LIGHTING  APPARATUS  AND  ILLUMINANTS. 

The  earliest  type  of  lighting  apparatus  consisted  of  an  open  coal  or 
wood  fire,  with  other  inflammahle  materials,  such  as  pitch,  burned 
in  a  brazier,  on  top  of  the  tower.  When  Boston  Light  was  estab- 
lished, in  1716,  the  common  oil  burner  of  the  period  was  used, 
inclosed  in  a  lantern  consisting  of  a  cylinder  of  heavy  wooden  frames, 
holding  small,  thick  panes  of  glass.  The  illuminant  was  fish  or 
whale  oil,  burned  in  spider  lamps  with  solid  wicks  and  suspended  by 
iron  chains  from  the  top  of  the  lantern.  Sperm  oil  was  in  general 
use  about  1812,  and  was  burned  in  a  lamp  constructed  on  the  Argand 
principle,  with  a  rough  reflector  and  a  so-called  lens  or  magnifier. 
This  apparatus  was  inclosed  in  a  heavy  wrought-iroii  lantern  glazed 
with  panes  about  12  inches  square.  Improvements  were  gradually 
made  in  this  apparatus,  and  by  the  year  1840  the  useless  bull's-eye 
"magnifiers"  had  been  entirely  removed,  and  the  reflectors  were 
made  011  correct  optical  principles,  approaching  the  paraboloid  in 
form,  heavily  silvered  and  properly  placed.  The  lanterns  were  also 
improved  by  making  the  frames  lighter,  the  panes  larger,  and  by 
providing  more  adequate  ventilation.  To  provide  illumination  all 
around  the  horizon,  sets  of  from  8  to  20  lamps  were  used,  placed  side 
by  side  around  the  circumference  of  a  circle.  This  arrangement,  in 
its  most  complete  form,  is  designated  as  the  catoptric,  or  reflector 
system,  and  its  relative  merits  as  compared  with  the  lenticular  system 
originally  devised  by  the  French  physicist  Augustiii  Fresnel  about 
1822,  was  the  source  of  much  controversy  in  the  years  preceding  the 
establishment  of  the  Lighthouse  Board  in  1852.  The  first  lens  in  the 


LIGHTING   APPARATUS   AND   ILLUM1NANTS. 


31 


United  States  .was  installed  at  Navesink  Light,  N.  J.,  in.  1841,  and  is 
still  preserved  by  the  Service.     (See  p.  91.) 

The  Fresnel  apparatus  consists  of  a  polyzonal  lens  inclosing  the 
lamp,  which  is  placed  at  the  central  focus.  The  lens  is  built  up  of 
glass  prisms  in  panels,  the  central  portions  of  which  are  dioptric  or 
refracting  only,  and  the  upper  and  lower  portions  are  both  reflecting 


Point  Reyes  Light  Station,  Cal. 

and  refracting,  described  as  ' '  catadioptric."  The  advantages  of  this 
system  lie  in  the  greater  brilliancy  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  light  given  out  by  the  source  is  concentrated  by  the 
prisms  into  beams  useful  to  the  mariner,  and  the  consequent  economy 
in  the  consumption  of  oil  or  other  illumiiiant  employed.  The  prin- 
cipal sizes  of  Fresnel  lenses  are  classified  according  to  their  order, 
this  depending  upon  the  inside  radius  or  focal  distance  of  the  lens — 


32 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


that  is,  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  light  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  lens — as  given  in  the  following  table: 

Order.  Millimeters.          Inches. 

First 920  36. 2 

Second 700  27.  6 

Third 500  19.7 

Three-and-a-half 375  14. 7 

Fourth 250  9. 8 

Fifth '. 187.  5 

Sixth..                                     ....150  5.9 


Pigeon  Point  Light  Station,  Cal. 

One  of  the  first  steps  taken  by  the  Lighthouse  Board  in  1852  was 
to  install  lenses  generally  throughout  the  Service  in  place  of  reflec- 
tors, and  this  change  was  carried  out  as  rapidly  as  possible,  being 
practically  completed  in  1859.  Lenses  are  in  use  at  the  present  time 
at  all  important  stations,  with  many  subsequent  improvements,  how- 
ever, in  the  design  and  arrangement  of  the  panels.  Improvements 
were  also  made  from  time  to  time  in  the  lantern  inclosing  the  lens,  and 
the  standard  type  now  in  use  is  of  cast  iron  and  bronze,  with  helical 
bars  bent  to  the  curvature  of  the  lantern  supporting  lozenge-shaped 
panes  of  curved  plate  glass.  These  bars,  crossing  the  beams  of  light 
diagonally,  offer  the  least  possible  obscuration  to  the  beams  toward 
any  point  of  the  horizon.  Suitable  ventilators  and  flues  to  furnish 
the  requisite  draft  and  to  carry  off  the  products  of  combustion  are 


LIGHTING   APPARATUS   AND   ILLUMINANTS. 


33 


also  provided,  and  the  entire  lantern  is  constructed  in  a  number  of 
sizes  corresponding  to  the  order  of  the  lens  which  it  accommodates, 
The  largest  lens  in  use  in  the  Lighthouse  Service  at  present  is  that 
at  Makapuu  Point,  Oahu,  Hawaii,  the  landfall  light  for  vessels  bound 
from  the  States  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  This  is  of  the  hyper- 
radiant  order,  a  larger  size  than  those  regularly  listed,  and  has  a 
focal  distance  of  1,330  millimeters,  or  52.4  inches;  the  inside  di- 
ameter of  the  lens  is  therefore  nearly  9  feet,  and  it  is  inclosed  in  a 
specially  designed  lantern  of  16  feet  inside  diameter.  It  is  the  only 
one  of  its  type  in  the  Service.  The  number  of  other  lenses,  from  the 
first  to  the  sixth  orders,  inclusive,  in  commission  on  June  30,  1915, 
is  as  follows:  57  first  order;  29  second  order;  68  third  order;  21 
three-and-a-half  order;  350  fourth 
order;  155  fifth  order;  and  86  sixth 
order;  total,  766. 

Reflectors  are  also  in  use,  partic- 
ularly for  range  lights,  which  are 
frequently  employed  to  mark  the 
axis  or  center  line  of  a  channel. 
For  ranges  two  lights  are  necessary, 
and  are  placed  a  proper  distance 
apart,  usually  with  the  rear  light 
higher  than  the  front,  so  that  both 
lights  show  in  line  in  the  same 
vertical  plane  when  the  observer 
is  in  the  center  of  the  channel. 
Such  reflectors  are  either  silvered 
surfaces  of  metal  in  the  form 
of  a  paraboloid,  similar  to  head 
lights  for  locomotives  or  automo- 
biles, or  in  improved  forms  of  glass  lenses  with  prismatic  glass 
reflectors  back  of  the  light  source.  The  latter  are  known  as  range 
lenses.  On  June  30,  1915,  there  were  100  reflectors  and  41  range 
lenses  in  use  in  the  Lighthouse  Service. 

During  the  transition  period  of  lighthouse  apparatus  from  reflec- 
tors to  lenses  sperm  oil  remained  as  the  leading  illuminant,  but  with 
the  yearly  diminution  of  the  whale  catch  it  gradually  increased  in 
price  until  its  use  became  prohibitive.  Colza  oil  was  used  in  small 
quantities  about  1862  and  succeeding  years,  but  during  the  period 
1864-1867  lard  oil  was  adopted  as  the  standard  illuminant,  and  was 
generally  employed  to  1878,  when  kerosene  came  into  use.  Its  use 
was  gradually  extended,  and  by  1884  kerosene  became  the  principal 
illuminant  and  so  remains  at  the  present  time.  The  lamps  used 
were  also  improved,  passing  through  various  styles  to  a  special  form 
of  concentric  wick,  using  five  wicks  for  the  largest  sizes.  The  incan- 
18247°— 16 3 


Incandescent  oil-vapor  lamp,  55-millimeter  man- 
tle, with  single  tank. 


34 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


descent  oil-vapor  lamp,  which  is  now  generally  employed  for  important 
lights,  burns  vaporized  kerosene  under  an  incandescent  mantle, 
giving  a  much  more  powerful  light  with  little  or  no  increase  in  oil 
consumption.  The  kerosene  is  stored  in  a  convenient  size  tank  and 
is  forced  by  compressed  air,  produced  by  operating  a  hand  pump 
attached  to  either  the  oil  tank  or  a  separate  air  tank,  into  the 
vaporizer  of  the  lamp.  The  air  pressure  varies  from  about  40  to 
60  pounds  per  square  inch  and  decreases  so  slowly  during  the  opera- 
tion of  the  light  that  a  few  strokes  of  the  pump  once  or  twice  a  night 
serves  to  maintain  the  required  pressure.  The  kerosene  is  con- 
verted into  vapor  by  a  preheating  torch  when  starting  the  lamp  and 
subsequently  by  the  heat  of  the  mantle  itself.  The  vapor  issues 
from  a  minute  nozzle,  mixes  with  a  proper  supply  of  air,  and  ignites 

as  a  blue  flame  in  a  Bunsen  burner 
under  the  mantle,  which  is  thereby 
brought  to  a  brilliant  incandes- 
cence. 

Various  other  illuminants  are 
now  in  use;  oil  gas  is  extensively 
used,  particularly  for  lighted  buoys  ; 
acetylene  gas  is  used  for  lighted 
buoys  and  unattended  lighted 
beacons;  electric  arc  and  incan- 
descent lights  and  coal-gas  lights 
are  also  used  in  special  instances. 
Electric  lights  with  distant  con- 
trol are  employed  in  a  number  of 
cases  where  a  reliable  source  of 
current  may  be  obtained.  Such 
lights  may  be  on  pierheads  or  structures  built  in  the  water,  and 
can  be  easily  operated  by  a  switch  on  shore  connected  to  the  light  by 
cable.  A  flashing  characteristic  may  be  arranged  by  means  of  an 
automatic  make  and  break  apparatus  consisting  of  a  small  motor 
driving  a  clockwork  and  wheel  with  cams.  The  principal  details  as 
to  illuminants  used  in  the  Service  on  June  30.  1915,  are  given  in  the 
following  table: 

Lights. 

Incandescent  oil  vapor 288 

Kerosene  wick 2, 067 

Acetylene 516 

Oil  gas 418 

Coal  gas 4 

Electric  incandescent 56 

Electric  arc...  6 


Incandescent    oil-va 


cent    oil-vapor     lamp, 
mantle,  with   double 


35-millimeter 
tanks. 


DISTINCTIVENESS   AND   CHARACTERISTICS   OF    LIGHTS.  35 

This  table  includes  lighted  buoys,  but  does  not  include  the  minor 
lights  in  the  three  river  districts,  of  which  there  are  1,801,  with 
kerosene  wick  lanterns. 

All  lights  on  the  seacoast,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  exhibited 
throughout  the  year,  between  sunset  and  sunrise.  On  the  northern 
lakes  and  rivers  lights  are  exhibited  from  sunset  to  sunrise  at  all 
seasons  when  vessels  can  enter  the  ports  or  are  navigating  in  their 
vicinity.  Some  of  these  lights,  notably  on  Lake  Michigan,  are 
maintained  throughout  the  year.  The  closed  time  varies  with  the 
seasons,  generally  embracing  a  part  of  December,  January,  Feb- 
ruary, and  a  part  or  all  of  March.  Gas  buoys  and  light  vessels  in 
these  localities  are  replaced  by  unlighted  buoys  in  the  fall  when 
endangered  by  ice  conditions,  and  again  placed  on  their  stations  as 
early  as  practicable  in  the  spring. 

10.  DISTINCTIVENESS  AND  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  LIGHTS. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  likelihood  of  confusion  between  lights, 
endeavor  is  made  to  give  the  lights  distinct  characteristics.  As  much 
of  the  coast  was  lighted  before  the  introduction  of  modern  lighthouse 
apparatus,  the  original  lights  were  as  a  rule  fixed,  but  at  the  more 
important  of  these  stations  apparatus  has  now  been  installed  to 
make  the  lights  flashing  or  occulting.  This  effect  is  produced  in  the 
case  of  flashing  lights  by  revolving  all  or  a  part  of  the  lens,  which  is 
specially  constructed  with  panels  of  prisms  for  concentrating  the 
rays  into  beams;  and  in  the  case  of  occulting  lights  by  some  form  of 
traveling  screen  or  shutter  which  obscures  the  light  at  intervals.  In 
either  case  the  motion  is  regulated  by  a  clockwork  generally  actuated 
by  weights  wound  over  a  drum  and  provided  with  the  necessary 
governing  mechanism  so  that  the  light  and  dark  periods  may  occur 
in  accurate  sequence  and  produce  the  proper  characteristic.  The 
usual  phases  so  attained  are  as  follows:  Fixed,  showing  a  continuous 
steady  light;  flashing,  showing  a  single  flash  at  regular  intervals; 
fixed  and  flashing,  showing  a  fixed  light  varied  at  regular  intervals 
by  a  single  flash  of  greater  brilliancy;  group  flashing,  showing  at  regu- 
lar intervals  groups  of  flashes;  occulting,  showing  a  steady  light 
suddenly  and  totally  eclipsed  at  regular  intervals;  and  group  occult- 
ing, showing  a  steady  light  suddenly  and  totally  eclipsed  by  a  group 
of  two  or  more  eclipses  at  regular  intervals.  The  foregoing  refers 
only  to  lights  which  do  not  change  color,  commonly  white,  but  further 
diversification  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  red  screens,  changing  the 
color  from  white  to  red  in  various  combinations,  such  lights  being 
known  as  alternating.  In  the  case  of  gas  or  electric  lights,  the  supply 
of  gas  or  current  is  cut  off  at  intervals  by  specially  designed  mechan- 
isms whereby  the  characteristic  may  be  adjusted  as  desired. 


36  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

The  terms  " flashing"  and  " occulting?  refer  to  the  relative  dura- 
tions of  light  and  darkness,  a  flash  being  an  interval  shorter  than  the 
duration  of  an  eclipse,  and  an  occultation  being  shorter  than,  or 
equal  to,  the  duration  of  light.  In  approaching  a  light  of  varying 
intensity,  such  as  fixed  varied  by  flashes,  or  alternating  red  and  white, 
due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  inferior  brightness  of  the  less 
powerful  part  of  the  light,  which  at  a  distance  may  show  flashes  only 
or  white  only,  in  the  respective  instances  cited.  Flashing  lights  may 
show  a  faint  continuous  light,  due  to  reflection  from  the  lantern,  in 
clear  weather  and  at  short  distances.  White  lights  may  have  a 
reddish  hue  in  some  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  where  lights 
change  from  white  to  red,  by  sectors  or  otherwise,  there  is  a  small 
amount  of  uncertain  color  on  each  side  of  the  line  of  demarcation. 
Red  sectors  are  produced  by  screens  of  colored  glass;  they  are  often 
employed  to  mark  outlying  dangers  near  the  light,  or  the  limits  of 
channels,  and  are  usually  arranged  so  that  the  light  shows  white  while 
a  passing  vessel  is  clear  of  such  dangers,  changing  to  red  as  the  shoal 
or  other  obstruction  is  approached.  Also,  at  the  edge  of  a  sector  of 
visibility,  the  light  is  not  cut  off  sharply,  but  gradually  fades  away. 

To  assist  identification  in  daylight,  towers  are  frequently  dis- 
tinguished by  characteristic  painting,  in  addition  to  peculiarities  of 
form  or  outline.  The  effect  of  several  colors,  when  combined  in 
bold  patterns  of  spirals,  bands,  or  blocks,  is  quite  striking  in  a  number 
of  important  lighthouses. 

The  principal  details  of  characteristics  of  lights  in  commission  on 
June  30,  1915,  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Lights. 

Fixed  white 1,  316 

Fixed  red 864 

Flashing  or  occulting 1,  050 

Fixed  and  flashing 69 

The  above  table  includes  lighted  buoys  but  does  not  include  the 
53  light  vessels  nor  the  1,801  post  lights  on  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its  tributaries,  all  of  which  are  fixed.  Of  the  light  vessels,  29  have 
fixed  white  lights,  5  fixed  red,  6  fixed  white  and  red,  and  13  flashing 
or  occulting. 

11.  VISIBILITY  AND  CANDLEPOWER  OF  LIGHTS. 

Under  normal  atmospheric  conditions  the  visibility  of  a  light 
depends  upon  its  height  and  intensity ;  the  distance  due  to  the  former 
being  known  as  the  geographic  range,  and  to  the  latter  as  the  luminous 
range.  As  a  rule,  for  the  principal  lights  the  luminous  range  is 
greater  than  the  geographic,  and  the  distance  from  which  the  principal 
lights  are  visible  is  limited  by  the  horizon  only,  and  under  some  con- 
ditions of  atmospheric  refraction,  the  glare  or  loom  of  the  light  and 
occasionally  the  light  itself  may  be  visible  far  beyond  the  computed 


VISIBILITY   AND   CANDLEPOWER   OF    LIGHTS. 


37 


geographic  range  of  the  light.  On  the  other  hand,  and  unfortunately 
more  frequently  the  case,  these  distances  may  be  greatly  lessened  by 
unfavorable  weather  conditions  due  to  fog,  rain,  snow,  haze,  or 
smoke.  Weak  and  colored  lights  are  more  easily  obscured  by  such 
conditions.  The  distances  of  visibility  in  nautical  miles  for  objects 
of  various  elevations  in  feet  above  sea  level  are  given  in  the  following 
table,  which  is  employed  in  calculating  the  geographic  range: 


*V^s    .  '  V  x 

%;        1*1  ^.^T"\ 


General  lighting  of  Atlantic  coast  at  entrances  to  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 


Height,  in 
feet. 

Distance,  in 
nautical  miles. 

Height,  in 
feet. 

Distance,  in    ' 
nautical  miles. 

Height,  in 
feet. 

Distance,  in 
nautical  miles. 

5 

2.55 

60 

8.85 

130 

13.03 

10 

3.61 

65                     9.21 

140 

13.52 

15 

4.43 

70 

9.56 

150 

14.00 

20 

5.11 

75 

9.90 

200 

16.  1G 

25 

5.71 

80 

10.22 

250 

18.07 

30 

6.26 

85 

10.54 

300 

19.80 

35 

6.76 

90 

10.84 

350 

21.38 

40 

7.23 

95 

11.14 

400 

22.86 

45 

7.67 

100 

11.43 

450 

24.24 

50 

8.08 

110 

11.99 

500 

25.  56           ! 

55 

8.48 

120 

12.  52  * 

38 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Distances  corresponding  to  heights  not  included  in  the  above  table 
may  be  found  approximately  by  the  formula  D  =  fVH,  in  which 
H  =  the  elevation,  or  height,  in  feet,  of  the  object  above  sea  level, 
and  D  =  the  corresponding  distance  of  visibility,  in  nautical  miles. 
The  formula  is  based  on  the  mean  curvature  of  the  earth  and  is  cor- 
rected for  ordinary  atmospheric  refraction,  and  should  be  used  only 
for  moderate  distances  and  elevations. 

To  make  use  of  the  above  table  in  a  practical  way,  it  is  necessary  to 
add  the  distance  corresponding  to  the  height  of  the  observer's  eye 
above  sea  level,  as  illustrated  in  the  following  example : 

A  light  130  feet  high  is  seen  just  at  the  horizon;  what,  under 
ordinary  atmospheric  conditions,  is  its  distance  from  the  observer? 


Nautical 
miles. 


From  table,  distance  corresponding  to  130  feet  height 13.  03 

Add  distance  corresponding  to  height  of  eye  above  sea  level,  say 
15  feet. .  4.  43 


Distance  of  light , 17.  Hi 

The  highest  light  in  the  Service  is  at  Cape  Mendocino,  Cal.,  the  focal 
plane  (or  center  of  the  light)  of  which  is  422  feet  above  mean  high 
water,  thus  giving  it  a  geographic  range  of  about  28  miles,  under 
normal  atmospheric  conditions  and  with  the  observer's  eye  at  a 
height  of  15  feet.  The  following  list  gives  the  names  and  locations 
of  23  lights  with  focal  plane  heights  of  200  feet  and  over,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  height: 


Height 

Height 

of  focal 

of  focal 

Dis- 
trict 

Station. 

plane 
above 

Dis- 
trict 

Station. 

plane 
above 

mean 

mean 

high 

high 

water. 

water. 

Fed. 

Feet. 

18 

Cape  Mendocino,  Cal  

422 

17 

Cape  Disappointment,  Wash.  . 

233 

19 

Makapuu  Point,  Hawaii. 

420 

9 

Mona  Island,  P.  R 

231 

18 

Faralfon  Cal 

358 

3 

Staten  Island,  N.  Y 

231 

9 

Culebrita  Island.?.  11  

305 

3 

Chapel  Hill,  N.  J  

221 

9 

Muertos  Island,  P.  R 

297 

17 

Cape  Meares,  Oreg 

220 

18 

Point  Reyes  Cal 

294 

19 

Kilauea  Point,  Hawau 

216 

18 

Point  Sur,  Cal  

270 

18 

Alcatraz,  Cal  

214 

9 

Cape  San  Juan,  P.  R 

260 

19 

Molokai,  Hawaii 

213 

17 

Cape  Blanco  Orea 

252 

11 

Grand  Island   Mich 

205 

19 

Aunuu  Island,  Samoa  

2">0 

17 

Heceta  Head,  Oreg  

204 

3 

Navesink,  N.  J 

246 

3 

Block  Island  Southeast,  R.  I 

201 

16 

Cape  Hinchinbrook,  Alaska  

235 

The  intensities  of  lights  were  formerly  indicated  merely  by  the 
order  of  the  optical  apparatus.  So  long  as  the  lenses  were  similar  in 
arrangement  and  the  same  type  of  lamp  was  used  this  gave  a  con- 
venient basis  of  comparison,  but  with  the  introduction  of  more 
modern  apparatus,  with  flash  panels  of  great  power  and  illuminating 


VISIBILITY   AND   CANDLEPOWER    OF    LIGHTS. 


39 


apparatus  of  increased  intensity,  such  distinctions  became  uncertain 
so  far  as  indicating  the  relative  brightness  of  lights.  The  statement, 
of  orders  has  now  been  generally  superseded  by  a  statement  of  the 
approximate  candlepower  in  English  candles.  The  actual  deter- 
mination of  such  candlepowers  for  large  lenses  is  difficult,  and 
it  is  in  most  cases  estimated  on  the  basis  of  accurate  photometric 
measurements  of  small  lights,  pro- 
portioning the  results  so  obtained 
to  suit  the  elements  of  the  lens 
under  study,  taking  into  account 
the  intrinsic  power  of  the  light 
source,  the  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical angles  of  the  various  panels, 
the  divergence  of  the  rays  at  the 
source,  the  absorption  or  reflec- 
tion of  a  percentage  of  the  light 
by  the  prisms  themselves,  and 
such  other  factors  as  enter  into 
consideration.  Although  only  ap- 
proximate, the  final  figures  are, 
however,  reasonably  consistent, 
and  from  them  the  observer  may 
judge  of  the  relative  brilliancy  and 
power  of  the  various  lights. 

The  brightest  light  in  the  Serv- 
ice, and  considered  by  some  au- 
thorities as  one  of  the  brightest  in 
the  world,  is  at  Navesink,  N.  J.,  on 
the  highlands  at  the  entrance  to 
New  York  Bay,  the  candlepower  of 
which  is  estimated  at  25,000,000. 
The  geographic  range  of  this  light 
is  22  miles,  but  its  glare  has  been 
seen  at  a  distance  of  70  miles  at  sea 
under  unusual  conditions  of  the  atmosphere.  This  great  intensity  is 
produced  by  a  powerful  electric  arc  inclosed  in  a  modern  lens  of  high 
magnification.  The  cost  of  maintenance  is  relatively  large  as  com- 
pared with  other  stations,  but  is  justified  by  the  amount  of  commerce 
entering  New  York.  The  names  and  locations  of  42  lights  in  the 
Service  having  candlepowers  of  100,000  or  greater  are  given  in  the 
following  list  in  the  order  of  brightness : 


Lens  and  diagram  of  Prisms,  Kilauea  Point. 


40 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Dis- 
trict. 

Station. 

Intensity 
of  brightest 
part  of 
light,  in 
approxi- 
mate Eng- 
lish can- 
dles. 

Dis- 
trict. 

Station. 

Intensity 
of  brightest 
part  of 
light,  in 
approxi- 
mate Eng- 
lish can- 
dles. 

3 
19 
2 
4 
6 
2 
7 
12 
3 
18 
5 
8 
11 
3 
19 
18 
11 
17 
11 
1 
10 

Navesink,  N  .  J  

25,000,000 
620,000 
580,000 
420,000 
420,000 
380,000 
370.000 
3«0.000 
300,000 
280,000 
280,000 
280,000 
270,000 
260,000 
240,000 
230,000 
220,000 
220.000 
200,000 
180,000 
180,000 

3 
6 
6 
6 
17 
1 
8 
3 
4 
5 
7 
8 
1 
6 
8 
11 
11 
16 
18 
2 
11 

Fire  Island,  N.  Y.. 

170,000 
170.000 
170,000 
170,000 
170,000 
160,000 
160,000 
130,  000 
130,000 
130,000 

no,  ooo 

120,000 
110,000 
110,000 
110,000 
110,000 
110,000 
110,000 
110,000 
100,000 
100,000 

Molokai,  Hawaii  
Cape  Cod,  Mas? 

Cape  Romain,  S  C 

Cape  Canaveral  Fla 

Listens  Range  Rear,  Del  
Hillsboro  lulet,  Fia.. 

Jupiter  Inlet,  Fla  
Heceta  Head,  Oreg 

The  Graves  Mass 

Monhe^an  Island   We 

Dry  Tortugas,  Fla  

Ship  Shoal,  La  

White  Shoal,  ,M  ich  

Alontauk  Point   N  Y 

Staten  Island,  N  Y 

Cape  May  N  J 

Farallon,  Cal  

Cape  Charles,  V  a  
Carvsfort  Reef  Fla 

Hoe;  Island,  Va. 

Ponsacola  Fla 

Matagorda,  Tex  
Moose  Peak,  Me 

Whiteflsh  Point,  Mich  
Shinnocock  Bay,  N.  Y 

St   \ugustine  Fla 

Kilauea  Point,  Hawaii  

Cape  San  Bias,  Fla  
Stannard  Rock,  Mich  

Point  Arena,  Cal  
Split  Rock,  Minn 

Outer  Island  Wis 

Grays  Harbor,  Wash  

Cape  Hinchinbrook,  Alaska... 
Point  Cabrillo,  Cal 

Rook  of  Ages,  Mich  
Petit  Manan,  Me 

Boston  Mass 

BiuTalo  N  Y 

12.  FOG  SIGNALS. 

The  first  fog  signal  in  the  United  States  was  a  cannon,  installed 
at  Boston  Light  in  1719,  which  was  fired  when  necessary  to  answer 
the  signals  of  ships  in  thick  weather.  Guns  of  various  types  were 
used  at  other  lighthouses  but  have  now  been  generally  abandoned. 

Bells  were  introduced  at  a  comparatively  early  date,  and  at  first 
were  usually  small  and  rung  by  hand  to  answer  vessels.  Larger 
bells  were  developed  and  striking  machinery,  governed  by  clockwork, 
devised  for  ringing  a  regular  code  or  characteristic.  Many  bells 
are  now  in  use,  ranging  from  small  hand  bells  up  to  4,000  pounds  in 
weight,  and  are  of  value  for  inside  waters,  harbors,  etc.,  but  are  not 
sufficiently  powerful  for  use  on  the  seacoast. 

Trumpets  were  the  next  improvement,  and  were  first  introduced 
about  1855.  The  original  device  consisted  of  a  steel  reed  or  tongue 
inclosed  in  a  box  with  a  large  trumpet  or  resonator;  the  apparatus 
was  sounded  by  means  of  compressed  air  produced  by  horsepower 
operating  through  suitable  machinery.  Although  the  sound  was 
more  penetrating  than  that  of  bells,  the  expense  and  inconvenience 
of  the  maintenance  of  a  horse  prevented  its  extended  use.  A  modi- 
fication was  made,  using  an  Ericsson  hot-air  engine  instead  of  the 
horse  as  the  motive  power,  and  trumpets  so  equipped  were  established 
at  a  number  of  stations.  A  somewhat  similar  device,  known  now  as 
a  reed  horn,  is  in  use  at  a  number  of  inside  stations  and  is  generally 
operated  by  compressed  air,  the  compressors  being  driven  by  internal- 
combustion  kerosene  or  gasoline  engines.  The  sound  is  of  moderate 
volume  only  and  is  not  sufficiently  loud  for  rough  outside  stations. 


FOG   SIGNALS.  41 

Steam  whistles  were  investigated  first  in  1855,  and  an  installation 
of  a  5-inch  whistle  was  made  at  Beavertail,  R.  I.,  in  the  fall  of  1857,- 
which  was  subsequently  replaced  about  1866  by  a  hot-air  engine.  The 
first  station  regularly  equipped  was  at  Cape  Elizabeth,  Me.,  where  the 
installation  was  placed  in  commission  on  June  15,  1869.  This 
consisted  of  a  boiler  and  fittings  with  a  10-inch  locomotive- type 
whistle,  giving  an  8-second  blast  every  minute.  This  was  the  most 
powerful  apparatus  devised  up  to  that  time,  and  in  point  of  volume 
and  carrying  power  of  the  sound  is  still  considered  a  very  efficient 
aid.  The  rapid  deterioration  of  the  boilers,  the  expense  of  providing 
fresh  water  and  fuel,  the  possibility  of  confusion  with  the  whistle 


Detroit  River  Light  Station,  Mich.,  showing  fog  signal. 

of  a  passing  vessel,  and,  above  all,  the  time  required  to  place  the 
signal  in  operation  in  the  event  of  sudden  fog,  are  factors  which  have 
tended  toward  the  nonuse  or  abandonment  of  this  type  of  signal  in 
practically  all  foreign  lighthouse  services,  though  it  is  still  exten- 
sively employed  in  this  country  with  whistles  up  to  12  inches  in 
diameter. 

Experiments  with  sirens  were  first  made  in  1867,  and  the  first 
service  installation  was  at  Sandy  Hook  East  Beacon  on  March  31, 
1868.  Originally  this  instrument  consisted  of  a  fixed  disk,  with  a 
number  of  radial  slits,  back  of  which  was  a  revolving  plate  with  the 
same  arrangement  of  slits,  and  a  trumpet  at  the  outer  end.  Steam 
at  about  70  pounds  pressure  was  driven  through  the  apparatus, 


42  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    191A 

and  the  escape  and  interruption  of  the  jets  through  the  openings 
in  the  disk  and  rotating  plate  produced  the  note.  The  apparatus 
has  been  modified  and  improved,  and  in  its  present  form  the  revolv- 
ing plate  has  been  superseded  by  a  cylinder  with  peripheral  slots, 
known  as  the  rotor,  which  is  inclosed  in  a  casing  also  with  slots, 
leading  to  a  horn  or  trumpet.  The  rotor  is  in  some  types  driven 
by  a  separate  auxiliary  mechanism  and  in  others  automatically 
by  the  main  supply  of  steam  or  air,  this  latter  type  being  known 
as  the  automatic  siren.  Compressed  air  is  generally  employed 
as  the  sounding  medium,  though  steam  is  used  at  a  few  places. 
The  compressors  are  driven  by  internal-combustion  engines.  The 
principal  advantages  of  the  compressed-air  siren  are  distinctiveness 


Fog  signal  at  Cape  Henry  Light  Station,  Va. 

of  note,  which  is  entirely  unlike  the  ordinary  whistle,  and  quickness 
of  starting,  rarely  over  10  minutes  being  required  in  any  case,  while 
some  of  the  more  recent  installations  may  be  sounded  almost  instan- 
taneously. 

A  number  of  other  signals  have  also  been  introduced,  such  as 
air  whistles,  in  which  the  same  type  of  plant  as  for  an  air  siren  is 
employed,  except  in  regard  to  the  sound-producing  apparatus;  also 
electrically  operated  bells  and  gongs,  which  do  not  differ  essentially 
from  those  operated  by  clockwork. 

Distant  control  is  often  used  for  electric  fog  signals,  particularly 
when  placed  on  the  ends  of  jetties  or  breakwaters  and  other  inac- 
cessible places.  The  striking  mechanism  is  usually  driven  by  a 
motor  incased  in  a  storm-proof  box  or  casing,  with  all  gears  running 


FOG   SIGNALS.  43 

in  a  bath  of  oil.  A  generally  heavy  and  safe  construction  is  adopted, 
and  the  striker  is  connected  by  submarine  cable,  if  necessary^to 
the  starting  box,  located  on  shore,  where  it  is  necessary  only  to  throw 
a  switch  to  start  the  apparatus. 

Other  types  are  the  "sireno,"  an  electrically  driven  blower  siren, 
and  the  ''diaphone,"  an  instrument  similar  to  the  siren  but  having 
a  reciprocating  piston  instead  of  a  rotor.  The  diaphone  is  used 
quite  extensively  in  the  Canadian  lighthouse  service  and  a  few 
installations  have  recently  been  made  in  this  country.  An  experi- 
mental installation  has  also  been  made  of  an  acetylene  fog  gun, 
which  consists  of  an  apparatus  for  firing  an  explosive  mixture  of 
air  and  acetylene  gas  by  means  of  an  electric  spark. 

Tests  have  been  made  with  various  shapes  of  resonators  or  trumpets 
for  the  most  efficient  propagation  of  the  sound  waves.  A  vertical 
mushroom  trumpet  has  been  found  to  give  good  results  where  an 
even  distribution  of  the  sound  is  desired  at  all  points  of  the  compass, 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  light  vessels.  In  other  cases,  par- 
ticularly light  stations  marking  important  places,  horizontal  double- 
mouth  horns  have  been  found  to  give  satisfactory  results  by  effecting 
a  wider  and  more  even  distribution  of  the  sound. 

Practically  all  fog  signals  as  now  installed  are  provided  with  a 
governing  device  for  timing  the  strokes  or  blasts;  this  usually  con- 
sists of  a  clockwork  whereby  the  cycle  is  repeated  every  minute 
in  order  to  facilitate  identification. 

Fog  signals,  though  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  mariner,  are 
subject  to  a  number  of  aberrations,  so  that  they  can  not  be  relied 
upon  implicitly.  Every  endeavor  is  made  to  start  fog  signals  as 
soon  as  signs  of  fog  have  been  observed  at  the  station,  but  such 
signals  should  be  regarded  by  mariners  as  auxiliary  aids  only  and 
soundings  should  be  taken  in  all  conditions  of  doubt.  A  fog  often 
creeps  imperceptibly  toward  the  land  and  a  vessel  may  have  been  in 
it  some  time  before  it  is  observed  at  the  signal.  Sound  is  con- 
veyed irregularly  through  the  atmosphere  and  mariners  can  not 
place  dependence  on  judging  their  distance  from  the  fog  signal 
by  the  power  of  the  sound.  Under  certain  conditions  of  the  atmos- 
phere the  sound  may  be  lost  a  short  distance  from  the  signal,  as 
there  may  be  silent  areas  or  zones;  or  the  sound  may  carry  much 
farther  in  one  direction  than  in  another,  and  these  conditions  may 
vary  in  the  same  locality  within  short  intervals  of  time. 

It  is  often  observed  that  in  any  given  direction  from  a  fog  signal, 
and  near  its  limit  of  audibility,  the  sound  may  become  extremely 
faint,  and  at  a  greater  distance  it  may  again  become  quite  distinct. 
It  should  never  therefore  be  assumed  that  fog  signals  are  not  in. 
operation  because  the  sound  is  not  heard,  even  when  in  close  prox- 
imity. Frequently  noises  in  the  ship  may  interfere  with  the  hearing 


44  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

from  the  deck  or  bridge,  especially  with  the  engines  running.  In  such 
cases  it  is  well  to  stop  the  ship  and  listen  in  a  quiet  position.  Whis- 
tling and  bell  buoys  are  sounded  only  by  the  action  of  the  sea;  there- 
fore in  calm  weather  they  are  less  effective  or  may  not  sound. 

However,  by  due  caution  in  navigation  and  the  prudent  use  of  the 
lead,  sufficient  warning  of  danger  is  generally  obtained.  In  order  to 
guard  against  the  possibility  of  breakdowns,  all  modern  fog-signal 
installations  are  in  duplicate,  so  the  second  signal  may  be  started  at 
once  in  event  of  accident  to  the  first.  Care  is  taken  to  give  each 
signal  an  equal  amount  of  use,  as  far  as  practicable.  These  pre- 
cautions are  taken  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  making  quick  repairs  at 
the  station. 

Submarine  signals,  which  have  been  introduced  in  recent  years, 
have  as  a  rule  a  more  effective  and  constant  range  of  audibility  than 
signals  sounded  in  air.  Such  a  signal  consists  essentially  of  a  specially 
designed  bell,  submerged  sufficiently  to  avoid  wave  disturbance,  with 
some  form  of  striking  mechanism.  On  light  vessels  the  bell  is  usually 
swung  over  the  ship's  side  on  a  chain  attached  to  a  davit,  and  the 
striking  device  is  operated  pneumatically  to  ring  a  certain  set  of 
blows  at  prescribed  intervals.  At  light  stations  the  bell  is  usually 
supported  on  a  tripod,  placed  on  the  sea  bottom,  a  short  distance 
away  from  the  light,  and  the  striking  mechanism  operated  electrically 
through  a  cable,  with  characteristic  number  of  blows  at  regular 
intervals.  When  attached  to  buoys  a  swinging  vane  is  provided, 
which  is  forced  up  and  down  as  the  buoy  surges  in  the  sea.  The 
motion  of  the  vane  causes  a  spring  to  stretch,  which  is  released  at  a 
sufficien  b  tension,  striking  a  blow  on  the  bell:  The  blows  are  of  equal 
intensity,  being  due  to  the  elongation  of  the  spring,  although  the 
interval  between  them  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  sea,  and  no 
regular  code  of  blows  is  therefore  practicable. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  with  submarine  bells,  a  receiv- 
ing apparatus,  somewhat  similar  to  a  telephone,  has  been  devised 
for  attachment  to  a  vessel.  This  is  apparently  more  effective  in  ves- 
sels of  deep  draft,  and  a  ship  so  equipped  may  determine  the  approxi- 
mate bearing  of  the  signal.  The  sound  may  be  heard  also  on  ves- 
sels not  equipped  with  receiving  apparatus,  by  observers  below  the 
water  line,  and  particularly  in  iron  or  steel  ships,  but  the  bearing  of 
the  signal  can  not  then  be  readily  determined. 

There  is  sometimes  an  unfortunate  conflict  of  interest  between 
the  need  of  a  loud  and  distinctive  sound  to  aid  the  mariner  in  a  fog 
and  the  quiet  and  comfort  of  residents  in  the  vicinity  of  the  signal. 

The  numbers  and  types  of  the  578  fog  signals  in  use  on  June  30, 
1915  (not  including  sounding  buoys),  are  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


FOG   SIGNALS. 


45 


Steam  (112) : 

Whistle 108 

Siren 4 

Air  (150): 

Whistle 13 

Siren 82 

Diaphone 3 

Sireno  (electric) 6 

Reed  horn 46 

Bell  (261): 

Clockwork 231 

Electric 13 

Engine 1 

Hand 16 

Horn  (4):  Hand 4 

Gun  (1) :  Acetylene : 1 

Submarine  bells  (50) : 

On  light  vessels,  operated  by  compressed  air 38 

On  bottom,  operated  by  electricity 3 

On  buoys,  operated  by  the  sea 9 


Total 578 

Since  1885  systematic  records  have  been  kept  of  the  number  of 
hours  of  fog  or  thick  weather  observed  per  year  at  each  fog-signal 
station»  These  figures  present  interesting  statistics,  and  are  of 
some  value  in  approximating  the  prevalence  of  fog  at  various  locali- 
ties when  proposed  new  signals  are  under  consideration.  A  sum- 
mary of  the  principal  results  is  given  in  the  subjoined  table. 


Dis- 

trict.a 

Num- 
ber 
of  sta- 
tions. 

Mean 
hours 
per 
year 
for  dis- 
trict. 

Maximum  observed  . 

Highest  annual  average. 

Station. 

Hours. 

Year. 

Station. 

Aver- 
age. 

Years. 

1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
10 
11 
12 
16 
17 

18 

56 
36 

100 
12 

85 
7 

1 
16 
15 
47 
54 
10 
29 

40 

874 
680 

463 
363 
218 
135 

112 
281 
228 
310 
359 
278 
439 

606 

Seguin  

2,734 
1,727 

1,809 
912 
902 
320 

128 
819 
1,224 
1,085 
2,269 
1,144 
1,770 

2,145 

1907 
1907 

1885 
1887 
1904 
1898 

1913 
1907 
1915 
1909 
1913 
1915 
1912 

1915 

Petit  Manan  

1,691 
1,175 

831 
525 
426 
183 

112 
562 
524 
541 
1,196 
555 
1,203 

1,337 

31 
14 

31 
30 

7 
8 

3 
10 
22 
11 
9 
5 
9 

31 

Great     Round     Shoal 
Light  Vessel. 
New  London  Harbor... 
Delaware  Breakwater.. 
Cape  Henrv 

Pollock  Rip  Slue  Light 
Vessel. 
Block  Island  SE  
Delaware  Breakwater. 
Baltimore 

Martins  Industry  Light 
Vessel. 
Egmont  Key 

Brunswick  Light  Ves- 
sel. 
Egmont  Key 

Cubits  Gap 

Cubits  Gap  

Cleveland  Breakwater.. 
Thunder  Bay  Island.  .  . 
Calumet  Harbor 

Buffalo  Breakwater... 
Middle  Island 

Calumet  Harbor  
Cape  Hinchinbrook  .  .  . 
Swiftsure  Bank  Light 
Vessel. 
Point  Reyes  

Scotch  Cap  

Swiftsure  Bank  Light 
Vessel. 
San    Francisco    Light 
Vessel. 

a  No  fog-signal  stations  in  the  ninth,  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  nineteenth  districts. 

The  absolute  maximum  record  is  that  at  Seguin,  Me.,  2,734  hours 
in  1907,  equivalent  to  about  30  per  cent  of  the  entire  year  (8,760 
hours).  The  maximum  observed  on  the  Great  Lakes  was  at  Calumet 


46 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Harbor,  near  Chicago,  HI.,  where  2,269  hours  of  fog  occurred  in  1913, 
amounting  to  about  26  per  cent  of  the  year.  This  and  other  stations 
near  large  cities  are  affected  somewhat  by  smoke  in  the  vicinity. 
The  highest  Pacific  coast  record  was  observed  in  1915  on  San  Francisco 
Light  Vessel,  Cal.,  being  2,145  hours,  or  about  24  per  cent  of  the  year. 
Fog  is  more  generally  prevalent  throughout  the  first  district  than 
any  other,  as  shown  by  the  f ollowing  table,  from  which  it  will  be  seen 
that  out  of  29  stations  in  the  entire  service  averaging  over  1 ,000  hours 
of  fog  per  year  14,  or  practically  one-half,  are  in  that  locality: 


Dis- 
trict. 

Station. 

• 

Average 
hours  of 
fog  per 
year. 

Years  of 
record. 

Percent- 
age of  fog 
based  on 
entire 
period. 

1 

1 
1 
1 

18 

1 
1 
17 
12 
2 
18 
1 
18 
18 
2 
1 
2 
•     18 
18 
18 
2 
18 
2 

Petit  Manan,  Me... 

,691 
,544 
.536 
,399 
,384 
,372 
,356 
,341 
,337 
,331 
.304 
,219 
,208 
,203 
,196 
,175 
.143 
,116 
,076 
,065 
,064 
,063 
,061 
,045 
,037 
.027 
,005 
,004 
,002 

31 
31 
31 
31 
25 
31 
3 
11 
31 
31 
24 
10 
23 
9 
9 
14 
11 
31 
31 
10 
23 
10 
31 
7 
7 
25 
23 
18 
4 

19 
18 
17 
16 
16 
16 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
14 
14 
14 
14 
13 
13 
13 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
11 
11 
11 

Whitehead  Me 

Lihby  Islands  Me 

Matinious  Rock,  Me  

Great  Duck  Island,  Me 

West  Quoddv  Head  Me 

Moose  Peak,  Me  

Egw  Rock,  Me 

Point  Reves  Cal 

Seguin,  Me               

Mount  Desert  Me 

Little  River  Me 

The  Cuckolds,  Me                 

Swiftsure  Bank  Li^ht  Vessel,  Wash 

Calumet  Harbor,  111  

Pollock  Rip  Slue  Light  Vessel,  Mass 

Bonita  Point  Cal 

Manana  Island,  Me  

Point  Arena,  Cal                

Blunts  Reef  Light  Vessel  Cal 

Great  Round  Shoal  Light  Vessel,  Mass  

Nash  Island  Me 

Pollock  Rip  Light  Vessel  Mass 

Point  Cabrillo,  Cal     

Humboldt  Cal 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal  

Nantucket  Shoals  Light  Vessel,  Mass.  ...                 . 

San  Francisco  Light  Vessel,  Cal 

Gloucester  Breakwater  Mass 

13.  BUOYS. 

Buoys  are,  as  &  rule,  employed  to  mark  shoals  or  other  obstructions, 
to  indicate  the  approaches  to  and  limits  of  channels  or  the  fairway  pas- 
sage through  a  channel,  and  in  some  cases  to  define  anchorage  grounds. 
There  were  some  buoys  in  service  at  the  time  of  the  transfer  of  the 
lighthouses  to  the  Federal  Government  in  1789.  Buoys  originally 
were  either  solid  wooden  spars  or  built  up  in  various  shapes  of  wooden 
staves,  like  barrels.  Wooden  spars  are  still  extensively  used,  particu- 
larly in  inside  waters ;  but  built-up  buoys  are  now  constructed  of  iron 
or  steel  plates. 

In  order  to  give  the  proper  distinctiveness,  buoys  are  given  certain 
characteristic  colors  and  numbers ;  and  following  the  uniform  practice 
of  maritime  nations  generally,  Congress  by  the  act  of  September  28, 
1850,  prescribed  that  all  buoys  along  the  coast  or  in  bays,  harbors, 


BUOYS.  47 

sounds,  or  channels  shall  be  colored  and  numbered  so  that  passing  up 
the  coast  or  sound  or  entering  the  bay,  harbor,  or  channel,  red  buoys, 
with  even  numbers  shall  be  passed  on  the  starboard  or  right  hand; 
black  buoys  with  odd  numbers  on  the  port  or  left  hand ;  buoys  with 
red  and  black  horizontal  stripes  without  numbers  shall  be  passed  on 
either  hand,  and  indicate  rocks,  shoals,  or  other  obstructions,  with 
channels  on  either  side  of  them;  and  buoys  in  channel  ways  shall  be 
colored  with  black  and  white  perpendicular  stripes,  without  numbers, 
and  may  be  passed  close-to,  indicating  mid-channels.  Buoys  to  mark 
abrupt  turning  points  in  channels  or  obstructions  requiring  unusual 
prominence,  are  fitted  with  perches  or  staves  surmounted  by  balls, 
cages,  or  other  distinctive  marks. 

Buoys  marking  light-vessel  stations  are  placed  in  close  proximity 
to  the  light  vessel,  are  colored  in  a  similar  manner,  and  bear  the  letters 
LV  with  the  initials  of  the  station  they  mark.  Buoys  denning  an- 
chorage grounds  are  painted  white,  except  those  used  for  such  pur- 
poses at  a  quarantine  station,  in  which  case  they  are  painted  yellow. 

To  assist  further  in  distinguishing  buoys,  the  ordinary  unlighted 
types  are  made  in  two  principal  shapes  in  the  portion  showing  above 
the  water  line:  Nun  buoys,  conical  in  pattern  with  pointed  tops,  and 
can  buoys,  cylinder  shaped  with  flat  tops.  When  placed  on  the  sides 
of  channels,  nun  buoys,  properly  colored  and  numbered,  are  placed 
on  the  starboard  or  right-hand  side  going  in  from  sea,  and  can  buoys 
on  the  port  or  left-hand  side.  The  numbers  and  letters  placed  on  all 
buoys  are  formed  by  standard  stencils,  to  insure  uniformity,  and  the 
largest  size  practicable  is  used  so  that  these  may  show  as  prominently 
as  possible.  White  characters  are  painted  on  black  buoys  and  black 
characters  on  red  buoys. 

Buoys  are  anchored  in  their  positions  by  various  types  of  moorings, 
depending  on  the  character  of  the  bottom  and  the  size  and  importance 
of  the  buoy.  They  are  placed  in  position  and  cared  for  by  the  light- 
house tenders,  which  are  provided  with  specially  designed  derricks 
and  lifting  gear  for  handling  them.  It  is  customary  to  relieve  all 
buoys  at  least  once  a  year  for  overhauling,  repairing,  cleaning,  and 
painting,  and  oftener  when  circumstances  render  it  necessary. 
Although  among  the  most  useful  of  aids  to  navigation,  buoys  are 
liable  to  be  carried  away,  dragged,  capsized,  or  sunk,  as  a  result  of 
ice  or  storm  action,  collision,  and  other  accidents,  and  therefore  may 
not  be  regarded  as  absolutely  reliable  at  all  times.  Great  effort  is 
made,  however,  by  the  Service  to  maintain  them  on  station  in  an 
efficient  condition,  which  frequently  requires  strenuous  and  hazardous 
exertions  on  the  part  of  the  vessels  charged  with  this  duty.  It  is 
necessary  to  keep  an  ample  supply  of  spare  or  relief  buoys,  with  the 
necessary  appendages,  always  on  hand  to  provide  for  emergencies, 
and  the  systematic  relieving  of  buoys  on  station. 


48 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


BUOYS.  49 

Buoys  may  be  divided  broadly  into  two  general  classes,  lighted 
and  unlighted,  of  which  the  .latter  are  in  the  great  majority. 
Unlighted  buoys  comprise  spars,  both  wooden  and  iron,  can,  nun, 
bell,  and  whistling  buoys,  with  a  few  other  types  for  special  purposes. 
Lighted  buoys  are  provided  with  some  form  of  gas  apparatus  and  a 
lantern;  frequently  a  bell  or  whistle  is  also  attached,  in  which  case 
they  are  known  as  combination  buoys.  A  brief  description  of  each 
kind  follows. 

Wooden  spar  buoys  are  usually  cedar,  juniper,  or  spruce  logs, 
trimmed,  shaped,  and  provided  with  an  iron  strap  and  band  at  the 
lower  end  for  attaching  the  mooring,  which  is  as  a  rule  a  heavy  stone 
or  concrete  block,  or  iron  sinker,  sometimes  shackled  directly  to  the 
buoy,  or  to  a  short  piece  of  chain,  as  required  by  the  depth.  Such 
buoys  are  among  the  most  economical  and  generally  used  of  all  aids, 
and  are  particularly  employed  in  rivers  and  harbors.  They  are, 
however,  easily  damaged  by  ice  or  collision,  and  in  some  waters 
suffer  greatly  from  the  attacks  of  the  teredo  and  other  marine  borers, 
although  this  may  be  reduced  by  special  paints  or  other  protective 
treatment  when  not  unduly  expensive.  Four  sizes  or  classes  are  in 
use,  varying  in  length  from  50  to  20  feet  over  all,  to  conform  properly 
to  the  depth  of  water  at  the  position  of  the  buoy.  The  weights  of 
such  buoys  vary  from  1,500  to  350  pounds  each. 

Iron  spar  buoys  are  built  up  of  iron  or  steel  plates  in  the  form  of 
wooden  spars,  and  are  particularly  valuable  where  severe  ice  condi- 
tions exist,  or  where  the  teredo  is  unusually  active.  They  are  nat- 
urally more  expensive  and  heavier  to  handle,  thus  restricting  their 
use  to  special  localities.  They  are  made  in  three  classes,  in  lengths  of 
from  50  to  30  feet  over  all,  weighing  from  4,000  to  2,000  pounds, 
respectively. 

Cans  and  nuns,  as  already  noted,  are  built  of  iron  or  steel  plates, 
the  former  showing  a  cylindrical  and  the  latter  a  conical  top,  and 
are  the  most  extensively  used  of  metal  buoys.  The  interior  of  the 
buoy  is  divided  into  two  or  more  compartments,  by  bulkheads  or 
diaphragms,  to  prevent  sinking  when  damaged.  Each  kind  is  built 
in  three  classes  or  sizes,  and  in  addition  two  general  types  are  in  use, 
the  ordinary  type  and  the  tall  type,  or  channel  buoys;  the  latter  being 
a  modern  development  of  a  larger  and  more  prominent  buoy  for 
use  in  deeper  water.  These  buoys  weigh  from  8,300  to  700  pounds 
each,  according  to  size,  and  are  generally  moored  by  means  of  a  stone 
or  concrete  block,  or  a  specially  designed  hemispherical  cast  iron 
sinker,  shackled  on  a  length  of  chain  about  two  or  three  times  the 
depth  of  water  in  which  the  buoy  is  placed.  The  ordinary  type 
buoys  commonly  require  a  cast-iron  ballast  ball  attached  directly 
below  the  buoy,  the  mooring  chain  being  shackled  in  turn  to  the 

18247°— 16 4 


50  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

lower  end  of  the  ballast  ball;  this  is  necessary  to  assist  the  buoy  in 
maintaining  an  upright  position,  regardless  of  tidal  or  other  currents. 
The  ballast  ball  is  not  needed  with  the  tall  type  buoy,  which  has 
more  stability,  due  to  its  greater  draft  and  to  a  fixed  counterweight 
of  cast  iron  bolted  on  its  lower  end.  To  prevent  kinking  or  twisting 
of  the  chain,  a  swivel  is  occasionally  placed  in  the  mooring  chain  for 
all  types. 

Bell  buoys  have  a  hemispherical-shaped  hull,  built  of  steel  plates, 
with  flat  deck,  and  carry  a  structural-steel  superstructure  which  sup- 
ports a  bronze  bell  and  usually  four  iron  clappers.  The  motion  of  the 
buoy  in  the  sea  causes  these  clappers  to  strike  the  bell,  so  that  the  ac- 
tion is  entirely  automatic.  Although  the  buoy  is  quite  sensitive  and 
responds  to  even  a  very  slight  motion  of  the  waves,  the  sound  may 
be  faint  or  absent  in  unusual  calms.  This  type  of  buoy  is  especially 
efficient  in  harbors  or  inside  waters  for  marking  points  where  a  sound 
signal  is  desired.  Bell  buoys  weigh  about  6,900  pounds  each,  com- 
plete, and  are  moored  by  means  of  a  bridle  of  chain  attached  to  lugs 
on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  hull  near  the  water  line,  the  main  mooring 
being  shackled  to  the  middle  and  lowermost  part  of  the  bridle  and 
extending  in  the  customary  scope  of  chain  with  a  swivel  to  a  heavy 
cast-iron  sinker  on  the  bottom.  A  large-sized  ballast  ball  is  shackled 
to  a  mooring  eye  at  the  bottom  of  the  buoy,  and  the  whole  effect  of 
this  arrangement  is  to  assist  in  the  pendular  motion  necessary  for 
ringing  the  bell. 

Whistling  buoys  are  built  of  steel  plates,  and  consist  of  a  pear- 
shaped  body  with  the  smaller  end  uppermost,  with  a  long  open  tube 
on  the  lower  end.  This  tube  extends  throughout  the  length  of  the 
buoy,  and  is  closed  at  the  upper  end  by  a  headplate  on  which  is 
mounted  a  check  valve  and  a  whistle  on  the  superstructure  of  the 
buoy.  The  sound  is  produced  by  the  air  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
tube  being  compressed  by  the  falling  of  the  buoy  in  the  waves,  its 
means  of  escape  being  through  the  whistle.  A  fresh  supply  of  air  is 
drawn  through  the  check  valve  as  the  buoy  rises  again.  Like  the  bell 
buoy,  the  sound  is  automatic,  depending  solely  on  the  motion  of  the 
waves,  and  therefore  the  whistle  may  be  silent  when  the  sea  is  very 
smooth.  The  whistling  buoy  is  most  efficient  in  rough  outside  waters, 
where  a  ground  swell  exists,  and  is  employed  for  import  ant  points  where 
a  sound  signal  is  considered  desirable.  It  is  generally  moored  with 
a  single  chain  of  the  proper  scope  and  a  heavy  iron  sinker.  The 
weight  of  the  buoy  is  about  6,500  pounds.  For  great  depths,  where 
the  necessary  quantity  of  chain  impedes  the  flotation  of  the  ordinary 
size  of  this  buoy,  a  special  and  larger  size  is  in  use  similar  to  the 
regular  size  in  design  and  operation  but  weighing  about  11,000 
pounds. 


BUOYS. 


51 


Lighted  buoys  are  a  modern  invention,  having  come  into  use 
within  about  the  last  30  years,  and  are  considered  by  mariners  gen- 
erally as  among  the  most  valuable  of  recent  developments  in  coast 
lighting.  The  first  buoy  of  this  kind  was  a  gas  buoy  established 
experimentally  by  its  manufacturers  in  1881  near  Scotland  Lightship, 
entrance  to  New  York  Bay;  it  was  officially  taken  over  by  the  Light- 
house Service  in  April,  1884.  Electric  buoys,  operated  by  a  cable 
from  shore,  were  established  in  Gedney  Channel,  New  York  Bay,  in 
November,  1888,  and  were  discontinued  in  1903,  after  many  mishaps, 
due  chiefly  to  breaking  of  the  cable.  The  operating  expense  was 
high,  and  in  the  final  year  of  service  these  buoys  were  extinguished 
through  accident  on  120  nights. 

All  of  the  lighted  buoys  now  in  service  use  compressed  gas,  either 
oil  gas  or  acetylene.  Various 
types  of  self-generating  acetylene 
buoys  have  been  in  use,  operating 
on  the  carbide-to-water  and  water- 
to-carbide  principles,  but  have 

been  abandoned  on    account   of      |    ifrMff  I        I'll .  -m 
uncertainty  of  length  of  run  diffi- 
culty of  cleaning,  and  danger  of 
explosion. 

In  the  types  now  in  use  the  gas, 
at  a  pressure  of  about  12  atmos- 
pheres, is  contained  either  directly 
in  the  body  of  the  buoy  or  in  tanks 
fitted  into  compartments  of  the 
body,  and  is  piped  to  the  lantern 
at  the  top  of  the  superstructure.  Testing  pressure  in  gas  buoy' New  York  Bay" 
If  the  light  is  flashing,  as  is  commonly  the  case,  a  small  pilot  light 
burns  continuously  and  ignites  the  main  burner  as  gas  is  admitted 
from  the  flashing  chamber,  which  is  a  regulating  compartment  in  the 
base  of  the  lantern  provided  with  a  flexible  diaphragm  and  valves 
for  cutting  off  and  opening  the  flow  of  gas  at  intervals,  the  opera- 
tion being  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  reservoirs.  The 
length  of  the  light  and  dark  periods  may  be  adjusted  to  produce  the 
desired  characteristic,  such  as  five  seconds  light,  five  seconds  dark, 
etc.  Some  types  burn  the  gas  as  an  ordinary  flat  flame,  while  others 
make  use  of  an  incandescent  mantle,  which  is,  however,  not  wholly 
satisfactory  in  rough  water  on  account  of  breakage. 

Gas  buoys  are  made  in  a  number  of  different  sizes,  weighing  from 
2,800  to  34,500  pounds  each,  depending  on  the  importance  of  the 
location,  and  burn  continuously  by  night  and  day  for  intervals  of  a 
month  to  a  year  without  recharging.  The  apparatus  is  patented  by 


52 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


the  various  makers  and  has  been  brought  by  them  to  a  considerable 
degree  of  perfection,  so  that  considering  the  rough  usage  to  which 
such  buoys  are  subjected  by  the  elements,  gas  buoys  are  generally 
satisfactory  within  the  limits  of  reliability  to  be  expected  from  such 
aids.  They  should  not,  however,  be  relied  upon  implicitly,  as  they  may 

become  extinguished  or  dragged 
from  their  proper  positions,  or 
the  apparatus  may  be  out  of  order 
and  some  time  may  elapse  before 
the  buoy  can  be  reached  to  repair 
or  relight  it.  Gas  buoys  furnish 
valuable  marks  for  approaching 
entrances,  defining  channels,  and 
marking  dangers,  and  at  times  may 
obviate  the  necessity  for  light  ves- 
sels or  lighthouses  on  submerged 
sites,  either  of  which  would  be 
many  times  more  expensive. 
There  is  a  constant  demand  among 
mariners  for  more  gas  buoys  and 
for  buoys  with  more  brilliant  lights. 
Many  gas  buoys  are  provided 
with  some  automatic  form  of 
sound-producing  device,  such  as  a 
bell  or  whistle,  and  in  a  few  cases 
have  both  a  whistle  and  a  sub- 
marine bell.  These  operate  in  the 
manner  heretofore  described  (see 
pp.  44  and  50),  and  are  of  especial  value  in  fog  or  thick  weather,  or 
in  case  of  accidental  extinguishment  of  the  light. 

The  numbers  and  types  of  the  7,290  buoys  in  the  Lighthouse  Service 
in  commission  on  June  30,  1915,  were  as  follows: 

Unlighted  buoys  (6,811): 

Wooden  spars 4,  516 

Iron  spars,  cans,  and  nuns 1,  972 

Bell  buoys 

Whistling  buoys 86 

Lighted  buoys  (479): 

Gas  buoys 335 

Gas  and  bell  buoys - 

Gas  and  whistling  buoys 55 

Gas,  whistling,  and  submarine  bell  buoys 

Total..  -  7,290 


Gas  and   whistling    buoy,  entrance    to  New 
York  Bay. 


RIVER  LIGHTING.  53 

14.  RIVER  LIGHTING. 

The  lighting  of  nontidal  rivers  is  limited  to  those  which  have  been" 
specifically  authorized  by  law;  these,  however,  now  embrace  nearly 
all  the  important  streams  of  the  country.  In  the  Lighthouse  Service 
three  districts,  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth,  are  engaged 
entirely  in  the  lighting  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  principal 
tributaries.  The  lighting  of  these  streams  began  in  1874  and  has  since 
been  continued.  The  problem  presented  by  these  districts  differs 
considerably  from  that  found  in  the  coast  and  lake  districts.  As 
noted  in  a  previous  chapter  (p.  5),  the  inspectors  in  charge  of  these 
districts  are  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army 
and  are  usually  those  in  charge  at  the  same  time  of  the  river  improve- 
ment work  of  the  War  Department  proceeding  in  the  vicinity. 

The  lights  used  are  simple  in  character  and  are  generally  known  as 
post  lights.  In  some  cases  these  consist  of  an  ordinary  14-inch  hand 
lantern,  inclosed  in  a  square  or  triangular  tin  case  with  plain  glazed 
sides;  and  in  other  types  a  specially  designed  post  lantern,  with  a 
1-inch  flat  wick  and  pressed  glass  lens  about  8  inches  in  diameter,  is 
used  inside  a  small  triangular  case,  with  glass  on  two  or  three  sides 
as  the  location  requires.  A  wire  screen  is  fitted  to  the  top  of  the 
lantern  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  insects.  These  lights  burn  kero- 
sene and  as  a  rule  are  fixed  white  in  character,  although  some  are 
fitted  with  red  globes  or  shades. 

The  channel  cf  tiiese  rivers  generally  follows  the  concave  banks, 
with  crossings  where  the  concavity  shifts  from  one  side  of  the  river 
to  the  other,  and  the  lights  are  located  so  as  to  show  the  general 
shapes  of  the  bends  and  the  positions  of  the  crossings.  Tne  lights 
are  usually  placed  on  the  banks  of  the  river  and  the  crossings  marked 
by  two  range  lights,  one  ahead,  the  other  astern.  Where  the  crossing 
is  crooked  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  have  a  series  of  range  lights 
and  during  low  water  some  of  the  lights  are  placed  on  sand  bars  or 
on  small  floats  or  rafts,  these  latter  being  known  as  float  lights. 

The  most  complete  type  of  structure  on  which  post  lights  are 
placed  consists  of  a  post  with  braces  and  steps,  with  the  lantern  on 
top.  Wings  are  attached  to  make  a  better  daymark,  and  are  set  in 
oblique  positions  with  a  view  to  catching  the  sunlight  in  various 
directions  and  thus  assist  the  pilots  in  locating  it.  The  wings  are 
perforated  to  diminish  wind  action,  and  the  stations  are  further 
designated  by  numbers  placed  conspicuously  above  them.  It  is 
necessary  to  shift  the  position  of  many  of  these  lights  from  time  to 
time,  on  account  of  changes  in  the  channel,  caving  banks,  and  other 
reasons.  For  this  reason  some  of  these  structures  are  of  a  more 
temporary  character  than  the  type  just  described;  in  emergencies 
the  light  may  even  be  attached  to  a  tree. 


54 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Where  the  channel  is  narrow  or  crooked,  or  the  ends  of  wing  dams 
are  to  be  marked,  buoys  have  been  found  desirable,  and  a  special 
type  has  been  developed.  It  was  found  that  the  buoy  best  adapted 
to  fulfill  the  conditions  peculiar  to  these  waters  is  one  having  but  a 
slight  reserve  buoyancy,  in  order  that  drift  and  other  floating  objects 
coming  in  contact  with  it  will  pass  over  the  buoy,  submerging  but 
not  displacing  it.  One  type  in  use  is  a  built-up  spar  consisting  of  a 
central  barrel-shaped  section  fitted  with  galvanized  sheet-iron  cones 
or  hoods  at  each  end.  A  slide  for  a  hand 'lantern  is  provided  at  the 
upper  end,  and  the  buoy  is  moored  by  a  light  wire  cable  attached  to 
the  lower  end,  with  an  iron  weight  for  a  sinker.  Another  type  is 
composed  of  two  galvanized  sheet-iron  cones  placed  base  to  base; 


ippi  River  Post  Light. 


the  upper  cone  is  a  right  cone,  but  the  lower  is  oblique  in  order  that 
the  buoy  may  not  spin  in  the  current  and  untwist  the  light  wire 
anchor  cable. 

The  river  lights  are  attended  by  persons  living  in  the  vicinity, 
known  as  laborers  in  charge,  and  in  some  cases  a  group  of  several 
lights  may  be  in  charge  of  the  same  person  when  they  may  be  con- 
veniently cared  for  in  that  manner.  These  laborers  are  not  required 
to  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  Service,  as  in  the  case  of  regularly 
appointed  keepers.  The  supplies  for  the  lights  are  delivered  by  the 
lighthouse  tender  or  Engineer  Department  vessels,  and  such  vessels 
also  patrol  the  river  and  make  the  changes  in  location  as  required. 
Captains  and  pilots  of  river  steamers  are  supplied  with  franked  postal 
cards  on  which  they  are  requested  to  report  to  the  inspector's  office 
whenever  a  light  is  found  not  burning  properly. 


LIGHTHOUSE   DEPOTS. 


55 


Of  the  2,961  aids  in  commission  on  June  30,  1915,  classed  as  minor 
lights  and  float  lights,  1,801,  or  about  61  per  cent,  were  in  the  three 
river  districts.  In  the  remaining  districts  the  systems  of  river  light- 
ing are  naturally  not  so  extensive,  although  the  aggregate  number 
of  such  lights  in  rivers  like  the  Connecticut,  Hudson,  Delaware,  and 
St.  Johns  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  Columbia  and  Willamette  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  together  with  many  other  shorter  streams,  con- 
stitutes no  small  part  of  the  activities  of  many  districts.  A  specially 
designed  post  lantern  is  manufactured  by  the  Lighthouse  Service  for 
this  work  in  the  coast  districts.  It  is  constructed  of  brass,  with  an 
outside  protecting  cage,  and  contains  a  pressed  glass  lens  of  200 
millimeters  (approximately  8  inches)  diameter,  with  a  burner  of  two 
1-inch  flat  wicks,  using  kerosene.  Great  pains  were  taken  to  make 
the  lantern  wind  proof,  and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  proper  ven- 
tilation and  a  reasonably  bright  light.  .  The  type  now  in  use  has 
been  found  satisfactory,  even  in  gales  of  considerable  violence.  The 
lights  are  carried  on  various  types  of  simple  structures,  ranging  from 
single  posts  on  shore  to  pile  clusters  for  use  in  the  water.  They  are 
attended  by  laborers,  as  in  the  case  of  the  river  districts,  or  some- 
times by  the  keepers  of  some  adjacent  light  station. 

15.  LIGHTHOUSE  DEPOTS. 

An  important  feature  of  lighthouse  work  consists  of  the  lighthouse 
depot,  which  is  used  as  a  base  of  supplies  and  repairs  and  a  base 
station  for  vessels.  There  are  44  such  depots  in  the  various  districts, 
as  given  in  the  following  list.  The  principal  depot  of  the  district  is 
indicated  by  the  larger  type. 


First  district: 

Bear  Island,  Me. 

LITTLE  DIAMOND  ISLAND,  ME. 
Second  district: 

LOVELLS  ISLAND,  BOSTON,  MASS. 

Woods  Hole,  Mass. 
Third  district: 

Goat  Island,  R.  I. 

Juniper  Island,  Vt. 

New  London,  Conn. 

TOMPKINSVILLE,        STATEN        ISLAND, 

N.  Y. 

Tucker  Beach,  N.  J. 
Fourth  district: 

EDGEMOOR,  DEL. 

Lewes,  Del. 
Fifth  district: 

Annapolis,  Md. 

Chincoteague,  Va. 

Lazaretto  Point,  Md. 

Point  Lookout,  Md. 


Fifth  district — Continued. 

PORTSMOUTH,  VA. 

Washington  Wharf,  D.  C. 

Washington,  North  Carolina. 
Sixth  district: 

CASTLE     PINCKNEY,     CHARLESTO] 

S.  C. 
Seventh  district: 

Egmont  Key,  Fla. 

KEY  WTEST,  FLA. 
Eighth  district: 

Fort  San  Jacinto,  Galveston,  Tex. 

Mobile,  Ala. 

PORT  EADS,  LA. 
Ninth  district: 

Culebrita  Island,  P.  R. 

Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba. 

SAN  JUAN,  P.  R. 
Tenth  district: 

BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 

Erie,  Pa. 


56  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


Tenth  district — Continued. 

Maumee  Bay,  Ohio. 

Rock  Island,  N.  Y. 

Sandusky  Bay  (Cedar  Point),  Ohio. 
Eleventh  district: 

DETROIT,  MICH. 

Minnesota  Point,  Minn. 

St.  Marys  River,  Mich. 
Twelfth  district: 

Charlevoix,  Mich. 

MILWAUKEE,  Wis. 


Twelfth  district— Continued. 

St.  Joseph,  Mich. 
Sixteenth  district: 

KETCHIKAN,  ALASKA. 
Seventeenth  district: 

Ediz  Hook,  Wash. 

TONGUE  POINT.  OREG. 
Eighteenth  district: 

GOAT  ISLAND,  CAL. 
Nineteenth  district: 

HONOLULU,  HAWAII. 


To  be  of  the  greatest  efficiency  depots  should  be  central  in  location 
with  reference  to  the  district,  adjacent  to  important  mercantile  cen- 
ters for  facilitating  purchases,  and  easily  accessible  by  teams,  rail,  and 
water.  Many  of  the  depots  in  the  service  were  originally  intended 
only  for  the  storage  cf  relief  or  spare  buoys,  and  were  often  located  on 
islands  or  other  remote  places;  hence  not  fulfilling  the  ideal  condi- 
tions just  outlined.  Constant  effort  is  made,  however,  to  improve 
such  conditions  as  available  funds  permit,  and,  as  an  instance,  the 
case  of  the  sixth  district  may  be  cited,  in  which  a  new  depot  on  the 
mainland,  on  the  Ashley  River  side  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  is  being  made 
ready  in  place  of  the  old  depot  on  an  island  in  the  harbor. 

The  principal  features  of  a  depot  are  a  dock  and  a  storehouse;  to 
these  other  structures,  such  as  isolated  oil  houses  for  inflammable 
articles,  lamp,  machine,  carpenter  and  blacksmith's  shops,  cement 
houses,  buoy,  lumber,  and  coal  sheds,  offices,  keepers'  dwellings,  der- 
ricks and  other  lifting  gear,  tramways,  and  similar  appurtenances, 
are  added  as  may  be  required  by  the  extent  and  character  of  the 
work  in  the  respective  districts. 

The  principal  work  at  a  lighthouse  depot  consists  in  caring  for  the 
articles  in  stock  and  the  filling  of  approved  requisitions  for  the  use  of 
such  articles  in  the  work  of  the  Service,  also  in  the.  cleaning,  painting, 
and  overhauling  of  the  buoys  and  appendages.  Tools  and  equipment 
for  working  parties  on  stations  and  vessels  are  also  stored  at  the 
depots  when  not  in  active  use;  damaged  and  worn-out  articles  are 
brought  to  the  depot  from  the  vessels  arid  stations  for  repair  or  survey 
and  condemnation,  as  their  condition  warrants.  The  depots  are 
headquarters  for  the  vessels  of  the  Lighthouse  Service,  both  for  the 
routine  work  of  the  tenders  and  for  examination  and  sometimes 
repair  of  tenders  and  light  vessels. 

The  general  depot  at  Tompkinsville,  N.  Y.,  which  is  much  larger 
than  the  customary  district  depot,  has  already  been  mentioned  on 
page  5.  This  depot  fills  the  double  purpose  of  being  headquarters 
for  the  third  district  as  well  as  a  central  supply  station,  repair  shop, 
and  purchasing  agency  for  the  entire  Service.  Proposals  for  annual 
supplies  are  issued  from  this  depot  for  articles  to  be  delivered  on 


LIGHTHOUSE    DEPOTS. 


57 


58  UNITED   STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

contract;  these  are  then  issued  to  other  districts  on  the  basis  of 
requisitions  made  by  the  inspectors  and  approved  by  the  Commis- 
sioner. The  various  shops  at  this  depot  are  employed  chiefly  in  the 
manufacture  and  repair  of  special  apparatus  used  by  the  Service, 
much  of  which  can  not  be  obtained  from  regular  dealers  at  an  econom- 
ical price;  and  a  considerable  amount  of  repair  work  to  vessels  is  also 
performed.  A  small  laboratory  is  also  maintained  for  the  analysis 
and  testing  of  articles  used  in  the  Service;  and  a  large  amount  of 
experimental  work  is  done  on  various  light  and  sound  producing 
devices,  either  submitted  by  the  makers  for  test  or  designed  by  the 
technical  force  of  the  Service.  About  210  persons  are  engaged  at  this 
depot;  this  number  including  also  those  who  are  directly  concerned 
in  the  work  of  the  third  district. 

16.  LIGHT  VESSELS. 

The  Lighthouse  Service  maintains  light  vessels  on  53  stations,  and 
has  for  this  purpose  66  light  vessels,  of  which  13  are  relief  vessels;  all, 
figures  being  those  of  June  30,  1915.  They  are  generally  employed 
for  marking  dangers  at  sea,  approaches  or  entrances  to  harbors,  or 
important  points  in  the  courses  of  vessr-ls,  where  a  lighthouse  would 
not  be  feasible  or  economical,  and  are  of  particular  value  in  providing 
both  a  light  and  a  fog  signal  which  may  be  approached  close- to,  thus 
enabling  mariners  to  fix  their  position  at  sea  with  reasonable  cer- 
tainty. In  this  respect  light  vessels  are  superior  to  lighthouses,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  due  allowance  must 
be  made  for  a  safe  distance  in  passing.  A  valuable  secondary  advan- 
tage is  the  fact  that  light  vessels  may  be  shifted  to  meet  varying 
conditions  of  traffic,  such  as  changes  in  shoals  or  channels,  use  of 
deeper  draft  vessels,  and  similar  contingencies. 

The  first  light  vessel  established  in  this  Service  was  in  the  summer 
of  1820,  at  Willoughby  Spit,  Hampton  Roads,  Chesapeake  Bay,  Va., 
but  proved  too  small  for  the  station  and  was  moved  to  Craney  Island, 
Elizabeth  River,  Va.  A  larger  vessel  was  stationed  on  Willoughby 
Spit  in  1821.  The  first  outside  vessel  was  placed  7  miles  off  Sandy 
Hook,  N.  J.,  in  1823.  The  idea  of  lightboats,  as  they  were  then 
called,  became  popular,  and  by  1839  there  were  30  in  service,  most  of 
them  being  small  craft  in  inside  waters.  The  largest  vessel  was  that 
on  the  Sandy  Hook  station,  which  had  a  tonnage  oi  230. 

By  the  year  1852,  when  the  Lighthouse  Board  was  established, 
there  were  38  light  vessels  in  service,  of  which  number  26  were  in  bays 
or  sounds.  The  maximum  number  of  men  employed  on  each  was  10 
for  the  most  exposed  stations,  varying  down  to  4  for  those  least 
exposed.  The  type  of  vessel  used  at  that  time  was  evidently  not 
wholly  suitable  for  the  purpose,  as  there  were  often  complaints  that 
the  vessels  were  frequently  blown  from  their  moorings,  and  that  the 


LIGHT  VESSELS. 


59 


expense  of  maintenance  and  repair  was  excessive,  considering  also 
the  comparative  feebleness  of  the  lights. 

The  early  activities  of  the  board  were  directed  toward  the  replace- 
ment of  many  inside  light  vessels  by  lighthouses,  screw-pile  founda- 
tions being  used  extensively  for  the  latter ;  and  more  careful  attention 
was  given  to  the  design  of  vessels  suitable  for  exposed  outside  stations. 
Wooden  construction  was  the  rule  up  to  the  year  1882,  when  the  first 
iron  light  vessel,  No.  44 >  was  built,  for  station  on  the  seacoast  of 
New  Jersey.  About  the  same  time  several  vessels  of  the  composite 
type,  with  steel  frames  and  wooden  sheathing,  were  constructed;  but 
the  modern  tendency  has  been  toward  all-steel  construction.  Another 
practical  feature  of  design  which  has  greatly  increased  the  efficiency 


San  Francisco  Light  Vessel  No.  70,  Cal. 

of  light  vessels  is  the  use  of  propelling  machinery,  thus  enabling  them 
to  proceed  to  and  from  their  stations  under  their  own  power  and  to 
assist  them  in  maintaining  their  positions  in  heavy  weather.  The 
first  light  vessels  in  this  Service  so  equipped  were  Nos.  55,  56,  and  57, 
built  in  1891  for  service  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  question  of  the  proper  form  of  the  hull  of  a  light  vessel  pre- 
sents many  interesting  and  complex  problems  in  naval  architecture. 
Steadiness  and  ease  of  motion  are  the  chief  requirements  for  the 
general  efficiency  of  the  light,  as  well  as  for  the  comfort  of  those  on 
board.  In  order  to  obtain  this  desired  result  recent  practice  is  to 
design  the  hull  so  that  the  wedges  of  immersion  and  emersion  in 
transverse  rolling  are  approximately  equal,  thus  avoiding  the  usual 
impulse  of  excess  buoyancy,  while  the  metacentric  height  has  been 
reduced  to  a  minimum  of  12  inches.  The  lines  are  quite  full  fore 


60  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

and  aft,  thereby  increasing  the  displacement  rapidly  as  the  vessel 
pitches  into  a  sea,  while  bilge  keels  and  ballast  are  both  employed 
when  necessary  to  insure  steadiness;  the  whole  idea  being  to  make 
use  of  all  elements  tending  to  control  both  rolling  and  pitching.  The 
scantling  throughout  is  much  heavier  than  ordinarily  required  in 
vessels  of  similar  size,  for  the  double  purpose  of  providing  great 
excess  strength  as  well  as  guarding  against  the  injurious  effects  of 
corrosion.  An  ample  number  of  water-tight  bulkheads  is  provided 
below  the  main  deck,  to  increase  the  st  ifl'ness  and  safety  of  the  vessel, 
and  especial  care  is  taken  in  the  design  of  the  mooring  gear,  which 
consists  essentially  of  a  large  central  hawse  pipe,  protected  by  a 
water-tight  breakwater,  with  chain  compressors,  springs,  and  a 
powerful  double  windlass,  usually  operated  by  steam.  The  main 
mooring  chain  is,  as  a  rule,  composed  of  links  made  of  the  best  double- 
refined  wrought  iron,  If  inches  in  diameter,  with  cast-iron  studs, 
in  accordance  with  rigid  specifications,  and  tested  to  a  proof  strain 
of  over  80,000  pounds.  The  chain  is  carefully  inspected  during  all 
stages  of  manufacture,  and  is  made  up  into  cables  of  suitable  lengths, 
with  the  necessary  shackles  and  swivels.  Such  chain  weighs  approxi- 
mately 160  pounds  per  fathom  (6  feet  >.  so  that  the  entire  weight  of  a 
standard  120  fathom  cable  is  about  9  tons.  Specially  designed  cast- 
steel  mushroom  anchors,  in  weights  up  to  7,000  pounds,  are  used  for 
mooring  to  the  bottom,  and  in  the  case  of  vessels  in  severely  exposed 
positions  in  deep  water  a  spherical  mooring  buoy  strongly  braced  to 
resist  collapsing  pressures,  is  shackled  into  the  submerged  portion  of 
the  chain,  tending  to  carry  a  portion  of  the  weight,  and  forming  a 
double  catenary  which  is  of  value  in  avoiding  injurious  strains  on  the 
vessel  as  it  surges  in  rough  weather. 

The  standard  type  of  propelling  machinery  HOW  in  use  consists  of 
one  vertical,  inverted,  direct-acting,  surface-condensing,  fore-and-aft 
compound  engine  of  a  size  suitable  to  the  dimensions  and  duty  of  the 
"vessel,  driving  a  cast-iron  propeller  and  supplied  with  steam  from 
two  Scotch  boilers;  the  engine  and  boiler  space  being  located  amid- 
ships. Some  of  the  more  recent  vessels  are  provided  with  internal- 
combustion  kerosene  engines,  which  it  is  believed  will  be  more 
economical  than  steam,  particularly  in  avoiding  the  expense  and 
difficulty  due  to  keeping  light  vessels  supplied  with  coal  and  fresh 
water,  as  w/i  ...^  avoiding  the  deterioration  of  boilers. 

Much  ri  ogress  has  been  made  in  the  interior  arrangements  of  light 
vessels,  particularly  in  the  way  of  accommodations  for  the  crew. 
The  early  lightships  were  single-deck  vessels,  with  the  quarters 
generally  below  the  water  line.  A  forecastle  head  was  then  added, 
which  was  gradually  extended  in  height  and  length,  until  an  entire 
spar  deck  had  been  developed.  The  latest  vessels  are  flush-decked 


LIGHT  VESSELS. 


61 


throughout,  with  all  quarters  on  the  main  deck  well  above  the  water 
line,  thereby  also  conducing  greatly  to  the  stability  and  safety  of  the- 
vessel  when  seas  are  shipped  in  heavy  weather.  The  details  of  the 
interior  of  the  present  types  of  light  vessels  are  also  worked  out  with 
care;  comfortable  staterooms  and  berths  are  provided,  the  vessels 
are  steam  heated  throughout,  sanitary  plumbing  systems  with  baths, 
toilets  and  drainage  attachments  are  fitted,  and  in  some  cases  electric 
lights  are  also  installed. 

The  complement  of  a  first-class  light  vessel  is  generally  4  officers 
and  10  men,  which  is  varied  in  the  case  of  smaller  and  less  exposed 
vessels  as  conditions  justify,  down  to  a  minimum  of  3  men  all  told, 


Buffalo  Light  Vessel  No.  98,  N.  Y. 

for  the  smallest  size  of  inside  lightships.  Liberal  provision  is  made 
for  shore  liberty,  as  will  be  taken  up  in  greater  detail  in  another 
chapter.  (See  p.  73.) 

The  illuminating  and  fog-signal  apparatus  on  board  light  vessels 
has  undergone  many  improvements.  Ordinary  ship's  lanterns 
served  for  lights  on  the  early  vessels,  while  the  fog  signal  was  a  hand 
bell  or  horn.  When  reflector  lights  were  introduced,  each  light  was 
composed  of  eight  lamps  with  reflectors  12  inches  in  diameter,  set 
upon  a  ring  which  encircled  the  mast,  the.  whole  apparatus  being  in- 
closed in  a  lantern  with  large  panes  of  glass  to  protect  the  light  from 
the  wind.  When  not  in  use  the  lanterns  were  kept  in  a  small  house 


62  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

with  a  hinged  roof  at  the  base  of  the  mast,  and  were  lighted  and  hoisted 
to  the  masthead  at  night.  This  arrangement  is  still  in  use  on  some 
of  the  older  vessels.  Sometimes  such  lights  are  shown  on  two  masts. 
White  lights  are  commonly  employed,  red  being  used  occasionally 
when  necessary  to  give  distinctiveness. 

The  next  development  was  the  substitution  of  a  group  of  three- 
lens  lanterns  instead  of  the  reflectors,  placed  in  gimbals  on  a  ring 
around  the  mast  and  operated  similarly  to  the  reflector  lanterns. 
In  recent  years  a  tubular  steel  mast,  of  diameter  sufficient  to  con- 
tain a  ladder,  has  been  installed.  This  is  surmounted  by  a  helical 
bar  lantern  of  the  type  used  in  lighthouses  on  shore,  containing  a 
regular  lighthouse  lens.  Access  to  the  lantern  is  through  the  inte- 
rior of  the  mast,  and  the  lantern  is  surrounded  by  a  gallery  reached 
from  the  interior  to  permit  cleaning  the  glass,  and  serving  also  as  a 
distinguishing  daymark.  Any  illuminant  may  be  employed  in  such 
a  lantern,  such  as  electric  light,  incandescent  oil  vapor,  acetylene,  or 
oil  gas,  as  desired. 

Corresponding  improvements  have  also  been  made  in  fog  signals 
on  board  light  vessels,  but  these  installations  are  essentially  the 
same  as  have  already  been  described.  (See  p.  40.)  The  12-inch 
steam  whistle  is  still  used  on  many  light  vessels  as  the  main  signal, 
and  a  pneumatically  operated  submarine  bell  is  frequently  added  as 
an  auxiliary. 

Four  of  the  most  important  light  vessels  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts,  those  on  Nan  tucket  Shoals,  Diamond  Shoal  (Cape  Hatteras), 
and  Frying  Pan  Shoals,  and  the  relief  vessels  for  these  stations,  also  the 
vessel  on  Heald  Bank,  are  equipped  with  radio,  at  present  operated 
by  the  Navy  Department  in  connection  with  their  coast  radio  sys- 
tem. These  installations  have  been  found  of  considerable  value,  and 
it  is  expected  that  the  number  will  be  increased. 

Light  vessels  are  distinguishable  in  the  daytime  by  their  unusual 
shape  and  rig,  including  generally  some  form  of  cagework  as  a  day- 
mark  at  the  mastheads,  and  by  their  characteristic  painting  and 
lettering.  The  hull  is  often  painted  red  or  straw  color,  although 
many  other  colors  or  combinations  of  color  are  employed  to  make 
adjacent  vessels  as  different  as  possible,  and  a  short  station  name  is 
painted  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel  in  the  largest  size  letters  practica- 
ble. From  1867  to  1913  light  vessels  also  exhibited  a  number,  painted 
at  first  on  the  stern,  and  afterwards  on  each  bow  and  quarter.  These 
numbers  were  solely  for  identification  of  the  ship,  regardless  of  the 
station  occupied,  and  hence  formed  a  possible  source  of  confusion 
when  vessels  were  transferred.  The  numbers  are  still  retained  as 
part  of  the  official  designation  of  the  vessel  for  service  purposes,  but 
are  no  longer  prominently  displayed.  Light  vessels  on  seacoast  sta- 
tions are  also  assigned  international  code-signal  letter  flags,  identify- 


LIGHT  VESSELS. 


63 


ing  the  geographical  locality,  which  they  display  to  passing  vessels 
when  it  is  necessary  to  warn  them. 

Light  vessels  are  brought  in  from  station  at  regular  intervals  for 
docking,  overhauling,  and  repair,  and  during  the  interim  a  relief 
light  vessel  is  placed  on  the  station.  Care  is  taken  when  practicable 
to  have  the  relief  ships  so  equipped  that  they  can  show  the  identical 
light  of  the  station  ship  at  night,  and  during  fog  the  identical  fog 
signal;  also  sounding  the  same  code  number  on  the  submarine  bell, 
and  displaying  the  international  signal  flags  described  above  of  the 
vessel  relieved.  Relief  vessels  are  commonly  painted  red,  with  the 
middle  third  of  the  hull  white,  bearing  thereon  the  word  "Relief" 


Relief  Light  Vessel  No.  92,  seventeenth  district. 

in  large  black  letters.  They  also  exhibit  an  oval  daymark  on  the 
spring  stay,  midway  between  the  two  masts,  when  two  are  provided. 

To  avoid  confusion  when  light  vessels  are  off  their  stations  while  pro- 
ceeding to  or  from  port,  or  during  stress  of  weather,  they  fly  under 
such  circumstances  the  signal  letters  QE,  a  square  yellow  flag  over  a 
triangular  flag  with  vertical  bands  of  red,  white,  and  blue,  meaning 
in  the  international  code  "Lightship  is  not  at  anchor  on  her  station." 

The  average  life  of  a  light  vessel  is  estimated  at  30  years,  and  in 
order  to  maintain  the  present  number  of  light  vessels  it  is  necessary 
to  build  on  an  average  two  new  light  vessels  annually. 

The  principal  facts  relating  to  light  vessels  in  commission  during 
the  fiscal  year  1915  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the  following  page: 


64 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


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66 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


17.  LIGHTHOUSE   TENDERS. 


The  work  of  these  vessels  is  to  attend  to  the  buoyage,  to  supply  the 
light  vessels  and  isolated  light  stations  both  with  the  ordinary  articles 
for  maintenance  and  materials  for  construction  or  repair,  and  also  for 
inspection  purposes  when  necessary.  The  47  vessels  which  were  in 
commission  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1915,  steamed  a  total  of 
about  469,000  nautical  miles  in  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

The  original  tenders  were  sailing  vessels  and  the  first  in  use  was  the 
former  revenue  cutter  Rush,  transferred  to  the  Lighthouse  Service  in 
May,  1840,  and  thereafter  used  in  New  York  Bay  and  vicinity;  prior 
to  that  time  and  for  a  considerable  period  thereafter  much  of  the  buoy 
work  and  other  duty  now  devolving  on  tenders  was  performed  by 
contract.  The  first  steam  tender  was  the  Shubrick,  built  at  the  navy 


Lighthouse  tender  "Lilac,"  third  district. 

yard  in  Philadelphia  in  1857  and  first  used  on  the  Pacific  coast  in 
1858.  In  1865  six  small  steamers,  used  in  the  war,  were  transferred 
to  the  Lighthouse  Service  from  the  Navy  Department  for  service  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  these  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  present  fleet, 
although  none  of  the  original  vessels  are  now  in  the  Service.  The 
early  steam  tenders,  like  other  steamers  of  that  period,  were  side- 
wheelers,  and  frequently  carried  sail  as  well. 

The  first  propeller  ship  used  as  a  lighthouse  tender  on  the  seacoast 
of  this  country  was  the  former  Fern,  built  in  1871,  and  turned  over  to 
the  Navy  Department  in  1891.  With  a  few  exceptions,  all  of  the 
tenders  now  in  service  are  screw  vessels.  The  old  sailing  tenders  were 
disposed  of  as  rapidly  as  replacement  could  be  made,  and  by  1882 
only  two  remained,  the  Pharos  and  the  Mignonette,  both  schooners. 
The  latter  was  lost  in  a  hurricane  off  the  Texas  coast  in  1887,  while 
the  Pharos  was  in  service  as  late  as  1908,  when  she  was  condemned 
and  sold. 


LIGHTHOUSE    TENDERS.  67 

The  essential  features  of  a  lighthouse  tender,  in  which  it  differs 
from  the  ordinary  vessel  of  similar  size,  are  the  low  forward  deck  and 
the  buoy-handling  gear,  whereby  the  foremast  is  rigged  as  a  derrick, 
with  a  boom  and  falls  for  reaching  over  the  side.  The  construction 
of  the  hull,  the  framing  of  the  deck  and  all  parts  of  the  superstruc- 
ture, also  all  mechanical  appliances,  are  designed  with  a  large  reserve  of 
strength,  and  are  made  as  simple  and  sturdy  as  possible.  As  these  ves- 
sels are  frequently  required  to  take  and  keep  the  sea  even  in  the  face 
of  the  most  violent  storms,  a  high  degree  of  seaworthiness  is  essential; 
and  as  the  nature  of  their  duty  requires  them  to  be  handled  around 
shoals,  rocks,  and  other  obstructions  in  the  placing  and  relief  of  buoys, 
their  economic  maximum  draft  is  proportionally  limited,  and  un- 
usually strong  hulls  are  required  to  prevent  damage  from  accidental 
grounding  which  such  work  frequently  entails. 


Lighthouse  tender  "Fern,"  sixteenth  district. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  Service  in  the  design  of  lighthouse  tenders  to 
plan  working  boats  as  effective  as  possible  for  placing  and  tending 
buoys  and  for  other  lighthouse  duties,  and  to  provide  suitable  and 
sanitary  quarters  for  the  officers  and  crews  of  the  vessels.  As  oppor- 
tunity offers  in  connection  with  the  overhaul  of  older  vessels  improve- 
ments along  these  lines  are  effected. 

As  the  average  life  of  a  lighthouse  tender  is  estimated  at  25  years, 
it  is  necessary  on  an  average  to  build  from  one  to  two  new  tenders  a 
year  in  order  to  maintain  the  present  number  of  vessels  in  service. 

To  provide  for  frequent  overhaul,  cleaning,  and  painting  of  the 
underwater  body,  it  is  customary  to  dock  tenders  in  exclusively  salt- 
water districts  every  six  months;  in  districts  having  a  reasonable 
amount  of  or  all  fresh  water,  once  a  year  is  deemed  sufficient.  A 
standard  style  of  painting  is  prescribed,  using  red  lead  and  approved 
antifouling  paints  lor  the  underwater  body,  black  for  the  exposed 


68 

outside  of  the  hull  and  funnel,  and  white  for  the  top-sides  and  deck 
houses.  White  is  also  given  the  preference  for  the  larger  portion  of 
the  interior  painting,  while  the  lower  deck  is  painted  metallic  brown 
and  the  upper  deck  light  lead. 

Since  1867  it  has  been  the  custom  to  give  botanical  names  to  tend- 
ers, generally  of  some  plant,  flower,  or  tree  indigenous  to  the  district 
wherein  they  are  assigned.  This  name  appears  commonly  on  the 
stern;  brass  miniature  lighthouses  are  also  fitted  on  each  side  ot  the 
bow. 

The  typical  arrangements  of  a  number  of  tenders  are  along  the  fol- 
lowing general  lines,  although  in  a  number  of  instances  variations 
have  been  made.  The  anchor  windlass  is  forward  on  the  main  deck; 
this  is  often  protected  by  a  forecastle  head.  Below  this  the  chain 


Lighthouse  tender  "  Anemone,"  second  district. 

lockers,  tanks,  and  crew's  quarters  are  located.  The  open  portion 
of  the  main  deck  is  devoted  to  space  for  carrying  and  handling  buoys ; 
a  large  hatch  gives  access  to  the  fore  hold,  which  is  the  principal 
freight-carrying  space.  The  foremast  is  fitted  with  a  boom,  falls,  and 
lifting  gear  as  a  derrick  for  handling  buoys  and  heavy  articles. 
The  hoisting  engine  for  the  derrick  is  sometimes  on  the  main  deck, 
just  aft  of  the  foremast  or  in  the  hold  directly  below  and  operated 
from  the  deck  by  levers.  The  officers'  quarters,  wardroom,  galley, 
and  entrances  to  the  upper  engine  room  and  drum  room  are  usually 
on  the  main  deck,  the  gangways  of  which  are  as  a  rule  inclosed. 
There  is  generally  an  open  space  aft  with  towing  bitts  and  a  hawser 
rack.  The  amidships  portion  of  the  hold  is  given  over  to  the  engine, 
boiler,  and  bunker  space,  while  the  after  space  contains  petty  officers' 
quarters,  ship's  stores,  and  tanks. 


LIGHTHOUSE    TENDERS.  69 

The  upper  or  spar  deck  generally  extends  from  just  abaft  the  fore- 
mast to  the  stern;  here  may  be  found  the  wheelhouse  and  master's 
quarters,  the  small  boats,  generally  three  in  number,  a  launch,  a 
whaleboat  or  cutter,  and  a  dinghy,  and  quarters  for  the  inspector  or 
other  official  passengers.  The  mainmast  appearing  above  this  deck 
is  used  for  the  display  of  the  customary  range  light,  officials'  flags, 
and  for  the  support  of  the  antenna  yard  when  the  vessel  is  fitted 
with  radio.  At  the  present  time  three  tenders  are  so  equipped,  and 
further  installations  will  be  made  as  funds  permit. 

In  addition  to  the  national  ensign,  which  is  displayed  at  the  flag- 
staff while  under  way  in  daylight,  tenders  may  fly  the  Lighthouse 
Service  flag.  This  flag  was  first  used  in  1869,  and  is  triangular  in 
shape,  with  a  red  border,  and  bears  a  blue  lighthouse  on  a  white  field. 
While  working  on  buoys  in  channels  or  other  frequented  waters, 
tenders  may  display  a  red  flag  and  a  black  ball  at  the  foremast  head, 
as  a  warning  to  other  vessels  to  slow  down  in  passing. 

The  largest  tender  of  the  Service  will  be  the  Cedar,  now  under  con- 
struction at  Long  Beach,  Cal.,  for  use  in  Alaskan  waters.  This 
vessel  will  be  200  feet  8  inches  over  all,  36  feet  molded  beam,  and  of 
approximately  1,750  tons  displacement  at  13  feet  draft.  The  smallest 
regular  tenders  are  the  Snowdrop  and  Waterlily,  gasoline-propelled 
vessels  about  65  feet  long,  1 1  feet  beam,  and  3  feet  6  inches  draft. 

General  information  concerning  tenders  in  commission  during  the 
fiscal  year  1915  will  be  found  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 


70 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


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72  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

18.  PERSONNEL  AND  CIVIL-SERVICE  SYSTEMS. 

All  positions  in  the  Lighthouse  Service  are  governed  by  the  civil- 
service  rules,  which  were  extended  to  this  Service  by  President  Cleve- 
land, May  6,  1896,  and  all  appointments  and  promotions  are  made  on 
a  strictly  merit  basis;  this  is  of  great  importance  in  maintaining  a 
good  organization  and  rigid  discipline  in  a  purely  technical  service, 
on  the  efficient  conduct  of  which  is  directly  dependent  the  safety  of 
lives  and  property.  The  Service  is  justly  proud  of  its  long  and 
honorable  record  in  fulfilling  an  important  public  duty,  and  it  is 
only  by  close  adherence  to  those  worthy  traditions  that  its  ideals  may 
be  perpetuated. 

The  technical  and  clerical  positions  in  the  Lighthouse  Service,  such 
as  inspectors,  superintendents,  draftsmen,  aids,  and  clerks  of  all 
grades,  also  cadets  on  tenders,  are  in  the  educational  class  of  classi- 
fied competitive  positions;  all  original  appointments  are  therefore 
made  from  rosters  of  eligibles  established  as  a  result  of  educational 
examinations  conducted  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission.  Regis- 
ters of  eligibles  for  all  noneducational  positions  peculiar  to  the  Light- 
house Service,  such  as  officers  'of  vessels,  except  cadets,  keepers  of 
lights,  etc.,  are  established  and  maintained  by  the  district  civil- 
service  boards.  Applicants  for  such  positions  are  rated  by  these 
boards  from  answers  made  in  their  application  forms,  and  if  an 
eligible  rating  is  obtained  their  names  are  entered  on  the  register 
and  they  are  given  due  consideration  for  appointment  from  time  to 
time  as  vacancies  occur,  in  accordance  with  civil-service  rules. 
Original  appointment  is  usually  in  the  lowest  grade,  the  more  responsi- 
ble positions  being  filled  whenever  practicable  by  transfer  and 
promotion  of  employees  in  less  important  positions  who  have  earned 
such  consideration  by  reason  of  efficiency  and  length  of  service. 

In  the  case  of  officers  of  vessels,  the  possession  of  a  proper  license 
from  the  Steamboat-Inspection  Service  is  a  condition  precedent  to 
placing  upon  an  eligible  register  the  name  of  an  applicant  for  appoint- 
ment; and  in  general  similar  licenses  are  required  on  self-propelled 
vessels  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  to  those  required  in  the  merchant 
marine  for  vessels  of  similar  service  and  tonnage,  so  far  as  may  be 
practicable. 

The  duties  of  all  positions  of  keepers  require  that  the  lights  be 
given  the  necessary  care  and  attention  in  cleaning,  filling,  and 
lighting,  and  generally  that  the  incumbents  possess  ability  to  handle 
a  boat;  in  many  cases  knowledge  of  operating  machinery  is  required, 
in  view  of  the  fog-signal  and  revolving-light  mechanisms  at  a  number 
of  stations.  The  same  requirements  apply  in  a  less  degree  to  the 
positions  of  laborers  in  charge  of  minor  lights,  in  which  the  incum- 
bents work  but  a  portion  of  their  time  each  day.  Selection  for 


PERSONNEL  AND   CIVIL-SERVICE    SYSTEMS.  73 

these  positions  is  made  with  sole  reference  to  the  ability  and  fitness 
of  the  applicants,  the  proximity  of  the  applicant's  home  to~the 
lights,  and  facilities  possessed  by  them,  such  as  the  ownership  of  a 
suitable  boat  when  needed,  etc. 

Trades  and  skilled  positions,  such  as  machinists,  carpenters,  black- 
smiths, etc.,  are  also  in  the  classified  competitive  civil  service,  and 
employment  in  such  positions  is  made  by  selection  from  registers 
based  on  the  physical  ability,  training,  experience,  and  fitness  of  the 
applicants  for  the  employment  desired. 

The  compensation  of  all  positions  in  the  Service  not  fixed  by  law 
is  based  so  far  as  practicable  on  similar  requirements  in  the  com- 
mercial world;  thus,  the  entrance  salary  for  draftsmen  and  other 
technical  employees  is,  as  a  rule,  from  $100  to  $125  per  month,  for 
clerks  $75  per  month,  for  junior  officers  of  vessels  from  $50  to  $80 
per  month,  for  assistant  keepers  of  lighthouses  $35  to  $40  per  month, 
the  latter  two  grades  receiving  also  a  subsistence  allowance  while 
on  duty.  It  should  be  observed  that  these  are  the  average  rates 
only  and  that  the  compensation  varies  according  to  the  character 
and  location  of  the  work.  The  pay  of  laborers  in  charge  of  minor 
lights  is  based  upon  the  number  of  lights  cared  f or j  distance  necessary 
to  be  traveled,  and  conditions  met,  averaging  roughly  about  $8  per 
month  for  each  light  in  the  river  districts.  The  pay  of  trades  and 
skilled  positions  is  generally  governed  by  the  prevailing  rates  in  the 
locality. 

All  appointed  employees  in  offices,  at  depots,  on  tenders,  and 
in  the  field  force  at  monthly  rates  of  pay,  who  have  been  in  the  Service 
for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  may  be  granted  leave  when  properly 
approved,  not  exceeding  30  days  each  of  annual  and  sick  leave  in  any 
one  calendar  year. 

Special  rules  are  in  effect  regarding  leave  and  shore  liberty  on  light 
vessels  and  at  isolated  light  stations.  These  rules  provide  for  a 
rotative  system,  so  that  all  may  have  an  equitable  amount,  without 
interfering  with  the  proper  conduct  of  work  on  the  station  or  vessel, 
and  fix  a  maximum  of  90  days  per  year  in  the  case  of  light  vessels 
and  72  days  per  year  at  isolated  light  stations  where  families  do  not 
reside  or  where  the  location  is  unusually  remote  or  unhealthful. 

Careful  attention  is  paid  to  the  welfare  of  employees  in  all  cases 
in  which  remedial  measure;*  are  authorized  by  law.  All  persons  in 
hazardous  employment  in  the  Service  are  entitled  to  the  benefits  of 
the  act  of  May  30,  1908,  providing  for  compensation  for  injury  or 
death  sustained  in  the  line  of  duty.  In  addition,  expenses  of  medical 
or  surgical  attendance,  or  of  burial,  are  allowed  in  special  cases 
under  proper  authority  and  restrictions.  The  benefits  of  the  Public 
Health  Service  are  extended  to  various  classes  of  employees,  those 
on  vessels  being  cared  for  without  charge,  while  other  employees 


74  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

may  receive  care  and  treatment  under  the  same  rates  as  fixed  for 
the  Army  and  Navy.  The  Public  Health  Service  also  gives  infor- 
mation and  advice,  when  called  upon,  in  regard  to  medical  questions 
and  matters  of  sanitation  affecting  the  Lighthouse  Service,  and  pro- 
vides for  the  free  vaccination  of  certain  classes  of  employees  against 
smallpox  and  typhoid  fever.  That  Service  has  also  cooperated  in 
the  preparation  of  a  Medical  Handbook  for  the  use  of  lighthouse 
vessels  and  stations  on  the  prevention  of  disease  and  care  of  the  sick 
and  injured,  with  special  reference  to  first  aid  to  the  injured.  Medicine 
chests,  containing  such  articles  as  may  be  needed  for  isolated  vessels 
or  stations  in  emergency  cases,  with  directions  for  use,  are  also 
furnished  by  the  Lighthouse  Service. 

Libraries  are  furnished  all  light  vessels  and  inaccessible  offshore 
light  stations,  with  proper  arrangements  for  their  exchange  at 
intervals.  These  libraries  were  first  introduced  in  the  Service  in 
1876,  and  are  carefully  selected  from  books  of  a  good  standard  appro- 
priate to  the  persons  who  will  use  them;  while  largely  fiction,  other 
classes  of  literature  are  included  in  reasonable  proportions.  In  the 
matter  of  educational  facilities  at  stations  not  accessible  to  schools 
and  where  there  are  children  of  school  age,  inquiry  is  made  from  time 
to  time  into  the  education  of  the  children  and  any  course  which 
will  lead  to  their  suitable  education  is  encouraged;  and,  other  things 
being  equal,  preference  is  given  to  employees  having  children  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  16  years  in  filling  vacancies  by  transfer  at  stations 
convenient  to  schools.  Consultation  is  had  with  State  and  local 
educational  authorities  and  in  some  localities,  notably  in  the  State 
of  Maine,  good  results  have  been  achieved  through  traveling  teachers 
provided  by  the  State,  who  are  transported  by  lighthouse  tenders 
in  making  their  visits. 

There  is  great  need  for  provision  by  law  for  the  retirement  of  em- 
ployees of  the  Lighthouse  Service  who  after  long  service  have  lost 
their  ability  for  active  duty  by  reason  of  age  or  disability  incident 
to  their  work.  This  is  essential  to  full  efficiency  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Service.  A  pension  system  is  in  force  with  favorable 
results  in  the  lighthouse  services  of  most  of  the  other  important 
maritime  countries. 

All  male  employees  on  vessels  and  at  light  stations  are  required, 
when  on  duty,  to  wear  a  uniform  as  prescribed  for  their  respective 
grades.  Laborers  in  charge  of  minor  lights  are  not  required  to  wear 
uniforms.  These  uniforms  must  conform  to  the  regulations  issued 
on  the  subject,  which  cover  all  details  for  each  class  or  rank.  Such 
regulations  were  first  issued  in  1883.  The  standard  material  for  the 
clothing  is  dark  navy-blue  cloth  or  serge,  except  in  hot  weather,  when 
white  duck  is  allowed.  The  standard  cap  bears  in  the  middle  of  the 
front  a  gold  embroidered  wreath  inclosing  a  silver  embroidered  light- 


PERSONNEL  AND   CIVIL-SERVICE    SYSTEMS.  75 

house.  Officers  of  tenders  wear  a  single-breasted  coat  shaped  to_the 
figure  with  a  fly  front  and  standing  collar,  trimmed  with  braid. 
Other  employees  wear  a  double-breasted  sack  coat  with  gilt  buttons 
embossed  with  a  lighthouse.  Deck  officers  of  vessels  wear  an  anchor 
on  the  collar,  while  engineer  officers  wear  a  propeller.  The  relative 
rank  of  such  officers  is  indicated  by  sleeve  stripes  of  braid  near  the 
cuff  of  the  coat.  Keepers  of  lighthouses  wear  within  a  loop  on  the 
collar  the  letters  K,  1,2,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  indicating  respec- 
tively keeper,  first  assistant,  second  assistant,  etc.,  and  do  not  wear 
sleeve  ornaments.  Petty  officers  of  tenders  wear  ornaments  on  the 
sleeves  only,  midway  between  the  shoulder  and  elbow;  a  white  steer- 
ing wheel  for  quartermasters,  and  a  red  propeller  for  machinists. 

In  order  to  insure  uniformity  in  the  practical  operations  of  the 
Service,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Lighthouse  Board  was  to  issue  a 
a  set  of  rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  employees,  with 
detailed  instructions  concerning  the  routine  of  their  duties.  Such 
regulations  were  first  issued  October  22,  1852,  and  have  been  since 
revised  and  amended  from  tune  to  tune.  These  regulations  are  au- 
thorized by  the  law  governing  the  Lighthouse  Service,  and  the  latest 
edition  went  into  effect  October  1,  1914,  comprising  a  volume  of  about 
180  pages,  with  chapters  appropriate  to  the  various  activities  of  the 
Service.  The  Regulations  are  supplemented  by  Instructions  to  Em- 
ployees, the  latest  edition  of  which  took  effect  July  15,  1915.  This 
is  a  book  of  about  100  pages,  with  chapters  dealing  with  the  duties 
of  different  grades  of  employees,  such  as  keepers  of  lighthouses,  offi- 
cers of  tenders,  etc.,  with  general  chapters  on  disciplinary  and  pro- 
fessional matters  applicable  to  all.  All  -employees  are  required  to 
familiarize  themselves  with  the  instructions  and  to  be  governed 
thereby.  The  lighthouse  is  and  should  be  a  common  synonym  for 
absolute  reliability.  Strict  rules  for  the  government  of  the  Service 
must  be  made  and  observed,  and  this  has  been  the  policy  from  its 
earliest  days.  President  Thomas  Jefferson,  in  approving  the  dismis- 
sal of  a  keeper  in  a  case  referred  to  him  for  decision,  made  the  f  ollow- 
ing  remarks  in  his  own  handwriting,  dated  December  31,  1806:  "I 
think  the  keepers  of  lighthouses  should  be  dismissed  for  small  degrees 
of  remissness,  because  of  the  calamities  which  even  these  produce." 

On  the  other  hand,  devotion  to  duty  is  always  praised  and  re- 
warded. Keepers  in  charge  of  stations  who  attain  a  high  efficiency, 
as  shown  by  inspections  made  during  the  year,  are  entitled  to  wear 
the  inspector's  efficiency  star,  and  those  who  win  this  star  for  three 
successive  years  are  entitled  to  wear  in  lieu  thereof  the  Commission- 
er's star.  Whenever  employees  render  service  to  endangered  per- 
sons or  property,  or  otherwise  perform  their  duty  under  hazardous 
or  trying  conditions,  including  any  special  act  of  unselfish  or  unusual 
service  of  any  kind,  either  in  the  office  or  the  field,  in  a  manner  to 


76  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

merit  commendation,  a  special  report  is  made  and  a  commendatory 
letter,  signed  by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  is  addressed  to  such 
person  and  the  fact  noted  on  the  official  records  of  the  Service.  Also, 
the  light  station  in  each  district  attaining  the  highest  general  efficiency 
during  the  year  is  entitled  to  fly  the  "efficiency  flag,"  being  the  regu- 
lation service  flag,  for  the  succeeding  year. 

As  a  means  of  attaining  the  ends  sought  by  the  Regulations  and 
Instructions,  systematic  inspections  are  made  of  all  branches  of  the 
Service  by  its  officers.  Each  light  station  and  depot  is  inspected  at 
least  twice  a  year;  each  tender  and  light  vessel  at  least  three  times 
a  year,  at  such  times  as  will  secure  the  most  efficient  service,  and 
not  at  regular  intervals  that  may  be  anticipated.  Inspection  of  non- 
attended  lights,  buoys,  and  unlighted  beacons  is  made  at  least  once 
a  year.  Additional  inspections  are  made  whenever  rendered  neces- 
sary by  unusual  conditions.  Such  inspections  are  made  by  the  district 
officers,  who  fill  out  a  form  provided  for  the  purpose  at  the  time  of 
making  the  inspection,  and  in  case  it  appears  that  a  bad  state  of 
repair  or  other  unsatisfactory  condition  exists,  the  Commissioner  is 
promptly  notified. 

Such  inspections  are  supplemented  by  traveling  officers  of  the  Serv- 
ice; a  general  inspector,  who  attends  particularly  to  the  technical  fea- 
tures, such  as  the  condition  of  vessels  and  stations  from  the  engi- 
neering standpoint;  and  an  examiner,  whose  activities  are  more  par- 
ticularly addressed  to  business  methods  and  fiscal  matters,  such  as 
accounts,  reports,  etc.  The  officers  of  the  Bureau  also  make  inspec- 
tions from  time  to  time,  as  opportunity  permits,  in  order  to  obtain 
information  at  first  hand  regarding  the  operations  of  the  Service. 

On  June  30,  1915,  there  were  5,792  authorized  positions  in  the 
Lighthouse  Service,  divided  into  the  following  principal  classes: 

Executive  and  technical  employees 123 

Clerical  employees 145 

Depot  keepers  and  assistants 71 

Light  keepers  and  assistants 1,  471 

Laborers  in  charge  of  minor  lights 1.  782 

Custodians  of  reservations 12 

Officers  and  crews  of  vessels 1,  605 

Construction  and  repair  force 583 

Total 5,  792 

19.  LIGHT  KEEPERS'  QUARTERS. 

On  account  of  the  comparative  isolation  of  many  lighthouses,  and 
to  insure  immediate  attention  at  all  times,  it  is  the  practice  of  the 
Service  to  furnish  quarters  for  keepers  at  all  attended  lights.  Dwell- 
ings for  keepers  and  their  families  are  provided  for  nearly  all  impor- 
tant lights  located  on  shore,  while  in  the  case  of  offshore  stations, 


LIGHT    KEEPERS      QUARTERS. 


77 


Fort  Pickering,  Mass. 


Cape  Halteras,  N.  C. 


Point  Conception,  Cal. 


Barbers  Point,  Oahu,  Hawaii. 


Fort  Point,  Cal.  Pointe  aux  Barques,  Mich. 

DWELLINGS  FOR  LIGHT  KEEPERS. 


78  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1«»1.'.. 

where  women  and  children  are  not  permitted  to  reside  on  account  of 
the  hazard  in  making  a  landing  and  the  restricted  space,  quarters  for 
the  keepers  only  are  allowed.  Eight  hundred  and  fifty-seven  dwell- 
ings are  now  provided  for  lighthouse  and  depot  keepers. 

There  is  no  standard  type  or  design  of  keepers'  dwellings,  by  reason 
of  many  different  local  conditions  which  have  to  be  met,  embracing 
all  kinds  of  climate  from  the  exposed  coasts  of  Maine,  Alaska,  and  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  senr  tropical  conditions  of  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii. 
Attempt  is  made  to  have  such  buildings  conform  to  the  prevailing 
local  styles  and  customs,  and  at  the  same  time  to  harmonize  them 
architectually  so  far  as  practicable  with  the  light  station  and  its 
surroundings.  Consideration  must  also  be  given  to  the  kind  of 
materials  most  available  in  the  vicinity,  for  economical  reasons,  as 
the  limit  of  cost  for  such  dwellings  is  fixed  by  law  at  not  to  exceed 
$6,500,  exclusive  of  the  site.  While  this  is  ample  under  ordinary 
conditions,  the  great  difficulties  of  transportation  frequently  make 
the  costs  much  higher  than  would  prevail  in  localities  close  to  markets 
for  materials  and  sources  of  skilled  labor.  Unnecessary  or  elaborate 
ornamentation  is  avoided,  and  care  is  taken  to  use  simple  and  sub- 
stantial designs  appropriate  to  the  purpose.  In  recent  years  prefer- 
ence has  been  given  to  fireproof  construction,  when  funds  permit,  and 
the  use  of  perishable  materials  has  been  eliminated  when  feasible  to 
avoid  or  lessen  future  repairs.  In  all  new  dwellings  hot  water  or 
steam  heat  is  provided  in  climates  requiring  it,  as  well  as  sanitary 
plumbing  with  water-supply  and  sewerage  systems;  these  features 
are  also  being  added  to  older  dwellings  not  so  equipped,  as  circum- 
stances allow. 

In  some  cases  double  or  triple  dwellings  have  been  built  at  stations 
with  more  than  one  keeper,  but  recent  practice  favors  detached 
houses,  as  insuring  greater  privacy,  and  giving  the  opportunity  for 
individual  gardens  or  yards.  Many  reservations  have  areas  of  tillable 
soil,  on  which  keepers  are  permitted  and  encouraged  to  grow  vege- 
tables, etc.,  for  household  consumption. 

Where  quarters  are  furnished  by  the  Government,  a  fuel  allowance 
is  made  for  heating  and  cooking,  and  each  station  to  which  a  Govern- 
ment power  boat  is  assigned  is  also  granted  an  allowance  of  gasoline 
or  other  fuel,  based  on  the  reasonable  official  requirements  of  the 
station. 

In  order  to  avoid  any  possible  interference  to  the  work,  persons 
outside  the  Service  are  not  permitted  to  occupy  any  premises  belong- 
ing the  the  Lighthouse  Service;  no  traffic  or  trade  is  allowed  to  be 
carried  on  within  any  lighthouse  reservation,  nor  may  articles  be 
exposed  for  sale  on  the  premises.  Visitors  must  be  received  with 
courtesy  and  may  be  admitted  in  limited  numbers  to  lighthouses  at 
prescribed  hours  not  conflicting  with  the  regular  duties  of  the -keepers. 


LIGHTING   OF   BRIDGES.  79 

A  placard  entitled  '•  Rules  for  visitors"  is  posted  in  convenient  places 
where  it  may  be  seen  by  such  persons.  Probably  more  visitors  are 
received  at  Absecon  Light  Station,  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  than  any 
other  in  the  United  States,  about  10,000  persons  visiting  this  light- 
house in  July,  August,  and  September  of  each  year. 

20.  SAVING  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY. 

While  the  business  of  the  Service  is  primarily  concerned  with  the 
maintenance  of  aids  to  navigation,  it  frequently  happens  that  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself  to  give  assistance  to  persons  or  vessels  in  dis- 
tress, and  in  such  cases  it  is  the  duty  of  light  keepers  and  their  assis- 
tants, and  of  officers  and  crews  of  lighthouse  vessels,  to  give  or 
summon  aid  to  vessels  in  distress,  whether  public  or  private,  and  to 
assist  in  saving  life  and  property  from  perils  of  the  sea  whenever  it  is 
practicable  to  do  so.  The  records  of  the  Service  are  replete  with 
many  heroic  incidents  of  this  character,  and  it  is  customary  to 
include  a  brief  statement  of  this  work  in  the  Commissioner's  annual 
report,  giving  the  name  of  the  vessel  or  employee  rendering  this 
service,  the  object  or  person  aided,  and  the  nature  of  the  assistance 
performed.  Commendatory  letters  signed  by  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce are  addressed  to  such  employees,  and  in  specially  meritorious 
cases  involving  great  personal  danger  recommendation  may  be  made 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  for  the  award  of  life-saving  medals. 

In  the  annual  report  for  1914  mention  is  made  of  124  occasions  on 
which  services  in  saving  of  life  or  property  were  rendered  by  em- 
ployees of  the  Lighthouse  Service,  and  the  report  of  1915  includes 
143  similar  incidents.  These  latter  may  be  grouped  into  the  follow- 
ing general  classes: 

Cases. 

Towing  disabled  small  boats  to  safety 59 

Towing  larger  vessels  to  safety 30 

Furnishing  food,  clothing,  and  shelter 24 

Rescuing  persons  overboard 20 

Recovering  property 5 

Recovering  bodies 2 

Miscellaneous 3 

Total : 143 

21.  LIGHTING  OF  BRIDGES. 

One  of  the  duties  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  incidental  to  its  general 
work  is  the  supervision  of  the  lighting  of  bridges  over  navigable 
waters  of  the  United  States,  also  of  lights  on  sheer  booms,  piers, 
dams,  and  similar  obstructions  to  navigation.  All  parties  owning, 
occupying,  or  operating  bridges  over  any  navigable  river  are  required 
by  the  act  of  August  7,  1882,  to  maintain  at  their  own  expense,  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  throughout  the  year,  such  lights  on  their  bridges 


80  UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

as  may  be  required  by  the  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses;  failure  to 
do  so  may  subject  the  offender  to  a  fine  of  not  exceeding  $100  for 
each  offense,  and  each  day  during  which  such  violation  continues  is 
considered  as  a  new  offense. 

Special  regulations  are  issued  on  the  subject,  the  latest  edition 
being  dated  June  25,  1915,  intended  for  the  guidance  of  shipmasters, 
pilots,  and  bridge  owners.  They  prescribe  standard  methods  for 
marking  the  piers  and  waterways  of  bridges  with  various  combina- 
tions of  red  and  green  lights  for  different  classes  of  bridges,  illus- 
trated by  diagrams  or  plates  showing  the  proper  arrangements. 
The  red  lights  indicate  danger,  while  the  fairway  is  marked  by 
green  lights.  In  the  case  of  draw  or  swing  bridges,  mechanism  must 
be  provided  for  changing  the  color  from  red  to  green  and  vice  versa 
as  the  draw  is  opened  or  closed.  All  lights  are  required  to  be  securely 
attached  and  of  sufficient  intensity  to  be  visible  on  a  dark  night  with 
a  clear  atmosphere  not  less  than  1  nautical  mile.  Provision  is  made 
for  exempting  bridges  infrequently  used  from  the  more  detailed  re- 
quirements of  these  regulations,  so  long  as  such  lights  as  are  necessary 
for  the  security  of  navigation  are  maintained  in  each  case. 

On  June  30,  1915,  there  were  1,183  bridges  lighted  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations.  The  bridges  are  inspected  at  intervals  and  any 
deficiency  in  lights  is  called  to  the  attention  of  the  owners. 

22.  PRIVATE  AIDS  TO   NAVIGATION. 

It  is  unlawful  for  anyone  to  establish  or  maintain  any  light  or  other 
aid  to  navigation  similar  to  those  maintained  by  the  Lighthouse 
Service  without  first  obtaining  permission  to  do  so  from  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Lighthouses  in  accordance  with  regulations  established  by 
the  Secretary  of  Commerce;  violation  of  these  provisions  may  subject 
the  offender  to  a  fine  of  not  exceeding  $100  per  day. 

In  accordance  with  the  law,  those  desiring  to  establish  a  private 
aid  may  apply  for  authority,  on  a  blank  provided  for  the  purpose,  to 
the  Commissioner  through  the  proper  lighthouse  inspector.  This 
application  must  contain  the  material  facts  relating  to  the  proposed 
aid,  such  as  whether  a  light,  fog  signal,  buoy,  with  its  exact  location, 
color,  and  other  descriptive  items,  in  order  that  it  may  be  properly 
ascertained  that  no  conflict  will  exist  between  this  and  any  neighbor- 
ing Government  aid.  An  annual  report  is  also  required  from  those 
authorized  to  maintain  a  private  aid,  stating  its  condition,  and  inspec- 
tions of  such  aids  are  made  at  intervals  by  representatives  of  the 
Service.  Private  aids  authorized  under  the  rules  cover  a  useful  pur- 
pose in  marking  privately  dredged  channels  or  localities  where  special 
service  is  required.  Such  aids  are  usually  under  the  control  of  muni- 
cipalities, corporations,  yacht  clubs,  or  other  organizations.  Light 
and  fog  signals  on  ferry  slips  and  on  piers,  used  only  by  certain  ves- 


LAWS   FOR  PROTECTION    OF   AIDS.  81 

sels,  and  stakes,  bushes,  and  barrel  buoys  marking  shallow  and  little- 
used  channels,  are  not  affected  by  these  regulations.  Information 
regarding  lawfully  maintained  private  aids  is  printed  in  the  customary 
publications  of  the  Service,  the  same  as  for  Government  aids,  and  they 
are  also  entitled  to  the  same  protection  of  law  as  is  afforded  aids  main- 
tained by  the  Lighthouse  Service.  On  June  30,  1915,  there  were  660 
authorized  private  aids  in  commission,  comprising  211  lights,  23 
lighted  buoys,  267  unlighted  buoys,  134  other  unlighted  aids,  and  25 

fog  signals. 

23.  LAWS  FOR  PROTECTION  OF  AIDS. 

Heavy  penalties  are  prescribed  by  law  for  obstruction  to  or  inter- 
ference with  any  aid  to  navigation.  Exhibiting  a  false  light,  or 
extinguishing  a  true  light,  with  intent  to  bring  any  vessel  into  danger, 
is  a  felony  punishable  by  imprisonment  of  not  less  than  10  years,  or 
for  life.  Any  person  who  obstructs  or  interferes  with  any  aid  to 
navigation  maintained  by  the  Lighthouse  Service,  or  who  anchors  a 
vessel  so  as  to  obstruct  range  lights,  may  be  subject  to  a  fine  of  $500 
for  each  offense,  and  each  day  during  which  the  violation  continues 
may  be  considered  as  a  separate  offense.  By  a  recent  act  of  Congress 
these  provisions  apply  also  to  any  lawfully  maintained  private  aid, 
as  noted  in  the  previous  chapter. 

In  addition  to  the  Federal  statutes  on  the  subject,  various  States 
and  Porto  Rico  have  passed  laws  providing  penalties  to  be  imposed 
on  persons  interfering  in  any  manner  with  aids  to  navigation  main- 
tained by  the  Lighthouse  Service,  as  follows:  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Florida,  Alabama,  Texas,  Porto  Rico,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin,  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California. 

The  Lighthouse  Service  takes  the  position,  inasmuch  as  the  aids  to 
navigation  are  established  and  maintained  at  heavy  expense  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  safeguarding  maritime  interests  and  the  lives  and 
property  intrusted  to  then-  care,  that  it  is  therefore  the  obvious  duty 
of  masters  and  pilots,  in  their  own  interests,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
public  welfare,  to  exercise  special  care  to  avoid  collisions  with  these 
aids  to  navigation.  Failure  to  do  so  renders  persons  in  charge  and 
the  owners  of  offending  vessels  liable  for  the  full  amount  of  damages 
to  aids  and  subjects  them  to  the  penalties  prescribed  by  law.  It  is  a 
part  of  the  duty  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  to  prosecute  all  such 
offenders  vigorously. 

Making  fast  any  vessel  or  boat  to  a  buoy  or  beacon  is  an  interfer- 
ence with  an  aid  to  navigation  of  a  serious  nature,  and  any  person 
committing  this  offense  is  liable  to  prosecution. 

Masters  of  towboats  should  exercise  special  care  to  avoid  barges  in 
tow  striking  and  injuring  buoys,  beacons,  or  light  vessels. 
18247°— 16 6 


82  UNITED   STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

24.  PUBLICATIONS. 

The  principal  publications  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  are  light  lists, 
buoy  lists,  and  notices  to  mariners,  all  of  which  are  distributed  gra- 
tuitously to  shipmasters  or  pilots  for  their  information  and  guidance. 
There  are  three  important  light  lists,  each  revised  annually,  contain- 
ing information  regarding  lighthouses,  lighted  beacons,  light  vessels, 
lighted  buoys,  and  fog  signals,  giving  in  tabular  form  and  in  geograph- 
ical sequence  the  name  of  each  aid,  the  character  and  period  of  the 
light,  the  location  of  the  structure,  with  the  latitude  and  longitude  of 
more  important  outside  aids,  the  height  in  feet  of  the  light  above  high 
water,  the  distance  in  miles  at  which  the  light  may  be  seen  in  clear 
weather,  and  the  approximate  candlepower.  Other  columns  give  a 
brief  description  of  the  structure,  vessel,  or  buoy,  with  the  height  of 
towers  in  feet,  the  characteristic  blasts  or  strokes  of  the  fog  signal, 
if  any,  and  such  additional  explanatory  remarks  as  may  be  necessary 
in  any  case.  The  three  lists  mentioned  are  devoted  respectively  to 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Pacific  coast, 
in  separate  octavo  volumes,  with  the  following  number  of  pages  each 
for  the  1915  editions:  Atlantic  list,  357  pages;  Lake  List,  271  pages; 
and  Pacific  List,  148  pages.  These  light  lists  aim  to  give  all  the 
important  information  as  to  lights  and  fog  signals  in  a  convenient 
manner  for  the  purpose  of  mariners  engaged  in  coastwise  or  trans- 
oceanic navigation.  Effort  is  made  to  publish  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Lists  on  January  1,  or  as  soon  after  the  first  of  the  calendar 
year  as  possible,  and  the  Lake  List  on  April  1,  immediately  prior  to 
the  opening  of  the  season  of  navigation. 

In  addition,  the  Service  publishes  separately  for  each  lighthouse 
district  a  buoy  list,  which  gives  a  list  of  all  the  buoys  in  the  district, 
both  lighted  and  unlighted,  as  well  as  all  the  other  aids.  This  is 
issued  rather  for  the  use  of  local  authorities  and  pilots  and  for  the 
Lighthouse  Service.  As  far  as  the  location  of  buoys  is  concerned, 
the  larger  scale  charts  published  by  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  are  preferable  sources  of  information,  as  such  charts 
show  at  a  glance  the  location  and  character  of  all  buoys  and  aids  with 
reference  to  their  surroundings,  and  are,  moreover,  corrected  to  the 
date  of  issue ;  while  the  lists  can  only  be  brought  up  to  date  when  a 
new  edition  is  published,  about  every  two  years.  The  present  series 
of  buoy  lists  forms  a  set  of  16  octavo  volumes,  ranging  from  about 
125  to  20  pages  each,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  district. 

Announcement  of  all  changes  in  aids  to  navigation,  information  of 
dangers,  changes  in  shoals  and  channels,  facts  of  interest  affecting 
charts  and  coast  pilots,  corrections  to  published  lists,  and  similar 
items  affecting  navigable  waters  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States,  are  published  weekly  in  a  Notice  to  Mariners,  prepared  jointly 


PUBLICATIONS.  83 

by  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  and  the  Lighthouse  Service.  For 
important  changes  in  seacoast  lights  and  lightships  used  by  vessels  in 
foreign  trade,  a  supplementary  poster  notice  is  also  issued  for  promi- 
nent display  to  mariners.  A  Notice  to  Mariners  covering  all  navi- 
gable waters  of  the  world  is  published  weekly  by  the  Hydrographic 
Office,  Navy  Department. 

Light  lists  are  also  issued  for  each  of  the  three  river  districts,  com- 
prising the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries,  covering  broadly  the 
upper  Mississippi,  the  Ohio,  and  the  lower  Mississippi,  respectively. 
These  are  small  volumes  published  annually  in  vest-pocket  size  and 
contain  simply  the  number  and  name  of  the  aid,  the  distance  from 
some  starting  point,  the  side  of  the  channel,  and  the  color  of  the  aid. 

A  special  publication  of  the  Service  is  a  small  quarto  pamphlet  of 
about  20  pages,  including  diagrams,  containing  the  Regulations  for 
Lighting  Bridges,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made  on  page 
80.  This,  publication  is  issued  only  when  a  new  edition  is  necessary. 

The  Service  publication  of  chief  interest  to  the  general  public  is  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses  to  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce,  which  is  available  for  distribution  after  the  convening 
of  Congress  in  regular  session  in  December  of  each  year,  and  covers 
the  work  of  the  Service  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  on  the  preceding 
June  30,  as  required  by  law.  In  its  present  form,  this  is  an  octavo 
volume  of  about  100  pages,  and  gives  a  general  description  of  the 
operations  and  cost  of  the  Service  during  the  year,  with  recommen- 
dations for  new  legislation  and  estimates  for  appropriations  for  the 
second  next  following  year,  supplemented  by  detailed  statistics  of 
various  classes  of  aids  to  navigation  and  fuller  details  of  many  sub- 
jects mentioned  in  the  report  proper,  along  with  brief  technical 
descriptions  of  important  works  of  construction  or  repair  completed 
during  the  year. 

Other  publications  of  the  Service  are  of  a  routine  character,  printed 
in  limited  editions,  and  intended  more  particularly  for  its  internal 
government  and  administration.  A  number  of  these  have  been  re- 
ferred to  in  the  preceding  pages.  They  embrace  the  Regulations, 
the  Instructions  to  Employees,  the  Medical  Handbook,  the  Light- 
house Service  Bulletin  (a  monthly  leaflet,  commenced  in  January, 
1912,  containing  items  of  interest  to  the  Service),  the  Regulations  for 
Uniforms,  the  Civil-Service  Regulations,  and  the  various  forms, 
blanks,  record  books,  etc.,  needed  in  the  work  of  the  Service. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  various  printed  specifications 
and  proposal  forms  issued  by  the  Service  from  time  to  time  covering 
new  vessels,  lighthouses,  annual  supplies,  and  other  large  purchases 
for  which  contract  with  bond  is  required.  These  are  distributed  to 
prospective  bidders  in  response  to  their  inquiries  as  a  result  of  public 
advertisements  in  newspapers  and  other  periodicals. 


84  UNITED   STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 

25.  ENGINEERING  AND  FISCAL  MATTERS. 

Careful  supervision  is  exercised  over  all  technical  and  administrative 
work  of  the  Service,  the  desire  being  to  attain  a  high  professional 
standard  in  modern  methods  of  design  and  construction,  with  due 
regard  to  the  economical  expenditure  of  funds. 

Surveys  are  made  with  especial  care,  with  bearings  given  from  the 
true  meridian,  and  the  distances  well  checked,  to  insure  great  accu- 
racy. Each  corner  where  practicable  is  permanently  marked  by  a 
substantial  monument  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  survey  maps  are 
prepared  showing  the  information  obtained.  All  notebooks  and  other 
records  are  preserved,  and  in  connection  with  each  important  new 
structure  a  complete  record  is  kept  of  the  engineering  elements,  such 
as  computations,  stress,  analyses,  weights,  and  estimated  cost.  These 
principles  apply  to  the  design  of  vessels  as  well  as  shore  structures, 
full  details  of  the  form  characteristics  of  vessels  being  worked  out  by 
curves  of  displacements,  centers  of  buoyancy,  coefficients,  meta- 
centers,  centers  of  gravity  with  varying  conditions  of  load,  etc.,  in 
order  that  complete  stability  and  seaworthiness  may  be  assured. 

Plans  and  specifications  are  prepared  for  all  important  works. 
Standard  sizes  of  drawings  are  prescribed,  being  based  on  multiples 
of  the  dimensions  of  customary  letter-size  sheets  8  by  10£  inches  in 
size.  Each  drawing  bears  a  standard  title  giving  information  regard- 
ing the  subject,  the  scale,  date,  and  the  persons  responsible  for  its 
preparation.  A  standard  form  of  advertisement,  proposal,  instruc- 
tions to  bidders,  general  conditions,  and  contract  is  used  throughout 
the  Service,  and  a  number  of  standard  plans  and  specifications  cov- 
ering materials,  articles,  and  structures  have  been  prepared  for  Service 
use,  as  a  guide  to  designing  wherever  practicable  and  economical. 

All  works  of  construction  and  repair  are  supervised  closely  in 
order  to  make  certain  that  the  plans  and  specifications  are  followed, 
and  persons  charged  with  such  duty  are  required  to  keep  proper  con- 
struction records  and  to  make  regular  reports  of  progress.  In  the 
case  of  work  performed  by  the  field  forces  of  the  Service,  written 
work  orders  are  issued  showing  the  work  to  be  done  and  the  author- 
ized amount  of  expenditure.  When  the  inspection  of  supplies  or  ma- 
terial under  purchase  can  be  more  conveniently  handled  by  a  district 
office  near  the  location  of  the  contractor's  shop  or  plant,  inspectors 
cooperate  with  each  other  by  forwarding  the  plans,  specifications, 
and  other  necessary  information  to  the  office  assigned  this  additional 
duty. 

Progress  photographs  are  also  taken  from  time  to  time  to  show  the 
development  of  work  under  way,  and  record  photographs  are  kept 
of  all  light  stations  and  vessels,  with  descriptions  of  the  construction, 
equipment,  and  similar  information.  About  8,000  photographs  of 


ENGINEERING  AND   FISCAL   MATTERS.  85 

various  lighthouse  objects  are  on  file  in  the  Commissioner's  office; 
covering  practically  every  phase  of  the  activities  of  the  Service. 

The  administration  of  fiscal  matters  pertaining  to  the  Lighthouse 
Service  forms  one  of  its  most  interesting  problems.  A  rigid  economy 
is  enforced  in  this  direction,  and  no  expenditure  is  authorized  or  per- 
mitted which  is  not  necessary  to  render  the  aids  to  navigation  efficient. 

The  appropriations  made  by  Congress  for  the  Lighthouse  Service 
may  be  divided  into  two  broad  classes,  general  and  special.  General 
appropriations  are  those  providing  for  the  payment  of  salaries,  and 
the  other  ordinary  expenses  of  maintenance,  operation,  and  better- 
ment, and  are  limited  to  the  fiscal  year  for  which  appropriated,  while 
special  appropriations  are  those  designated  for  some  specific  purpose — 
usually  new  construction  or  extensive  rebuilding,  such  as  new  light- 
houses, vessels,  etc.,  and  are  available  until  expended.  The  total 
amount  of  special  appropriations  varies  from  time  to  time  with  the 
needs  of  the  Service  and  the  action  of  Congress.  The  estimates  for 
such  appropriations  usually  aggregate  about  $1,000,000  annually,  and 
the  average  sums  so  appropriated  for  the  10  fiscal  years  1905  to  1914, 
inclusive,  amounted  to  $946,247.  For  the  fiscal  year  1915  the  total 
appropriations  for  special  works  were  $136,000  and  for  1916  the 
amount  was  $250,000. 

The  general  appropriations  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Service  for 
the  fiscal  year  1916  were  $5,164,030,  subdivided  as  follows: 

Salaries,  Bureau  of  Lighthouses $64,  030 

Salaries,  lighthouse  keepers 940,  000 

Salaries,  lighthouse  vessels 1, 010,  000 

Salaries,  Lighthouse  Service 375,  000 

General  expenses,  Lighthouse  Service 2,  775,  000 

Total 5, 164,  030 

The  names  of  the  first  three  of  these  appropriations  indicate  their 
respective  objects;  the  appropriation  "  Salaries,  Lighthouse  Service," 
is  for  the  compensation  of  technical  and  clerical  employees  in  the 
field  service,  while  the  appropriation  " General  expenses'7  covers  all 
items  of  supplies,  repairs,  maintenance,  and  incidental  expenses 
required  in  the  Lighthouse  Service,  including  the  wages  of  laborers 
attending  post  lights  and  pay  of  mechanics  and  laborers  in  the  field 
force.  The  law  requires  that  these  appropriations  shall  be  so  appor- 
tioned by  allotments  as  to  prevent  expenditures  which  may  neces- 
sitate deficiency  or  additional  appropriations  to  complete  the  service 
of  the  year;  careful  accounts  are  therefore  kept  and  monthly  reports 
made  by  each  district,  showing  under  each  appropriation  the  total 
allotments,  deductions,  advances,  repayments,  vouchers  paid  or  for- 
warded for  payment,  and  available  balances.  On  account  of  the 
casualties  to  which  the  property  and  equipment  of  the  Service  is 
frequently  subjected  by  reason  of  storm  damage  and  other  accidents, 


86  UNITED   STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 

a  close  scrutiny  of  available  funds  is  a  highly  necessary  feature  in 
the  management  of  the  Service  finances.  Allotments  under  the 
various  general  appropriations  are  made  to  the  lighthouse  inspectors 
in  charge  of  districts  at  the  beginning  of  each  fiscal  year  for  operation 
of  their  district  during  that  year;  all  requisitions  for  supplies  made 
by  each  district,  or  other  expenses  incurred  by  them,  are  charged 
against  this  allotment.  This  has  been  found  advantageous  in  placing 
definite  responsibility  for  the  judicious  expenditure  of  funds  and 
increasing  economy  and  efficiency.  It  is  necessary  when  making 
allotments  to  keep  a  small  reserve  to  provide  for  storm  damage  or 
other  emergencies. 

All  purchases,  except  in  cases  of  unusual  emergency,  are  required 
to  be  procured  by  public  contracts  after  public  advertisement  for 
proposals  with  the  lowest  and  best  bidder  therefor.  Every  effort  is 
made  to  obtain  the  widest  possible  competition  in  all  cases.  Vouchers 
and  pay  rolls  are  required  to  be  checked  as  to  quantities,  prices, 
extensions,  and  totals,  and  signed  certificates  of  performance  are 
required  on  all  bills,  covering  the  receipt  of  the  articles  and  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  quantity  and  quality.  Payments  on  approved  vouch- 
ers are  generally  made  by  checks  issued  by  duly  bonded  special  dis- 
bursing agents;  in  a  few  cases  cash  payments  for  services  are  made 
to  employees. 

Property  records  are  kept  in  all  offices,  depots,  stations,  and  ves- 
sels; such  lists  are  verified  and  audited  from  time  to  time  by  inspec- 
tors or  by  traveling  representatives  of  the  Commissioner,  and  an 
annual  inventory  is  taken.  When  changes  are  made  in  the  personnel 
having  custody  of  property  an  additional  inventory  is  required. 
Property  is  divided  into  seven  general  classes,  as  follows  : 

Class  1.  Issuable  or  expendable  materials  or  supplies. 

Class  2.  Working  equipment,  fixtures,  and  fittings. 

Class  3.  Working  tools  for  construction  and  repair. 

Class  4.  Buoys  and  appendages. 

Class  5.  Condemned  articles. 

Class  6.  Shipments  in  transit. 

Class  7.  Office  furniture  and  equipment. 

A  stock  and  stores  account  is  kept  of  all  expendable  supplies  and 
issue  is  made  only  on  approved  requisitions.  An  invoice  accom- 
panies each  shipment,  a  copy  of  which  must  be  receipted  and  returned 
to  the  issuing  office  or  depot.  The  information  obtained  from  this 
stock-keeping  system  forms  a  basis  for  keeping  an  accurate  cost  of 
every  important  feature  of  the  work  of  the  Lighthouse  Service.  The 
results  thus  obtained  are  of  value  in  preparing  estimates,  in  planning 
work,  and  in  comparing  the  efficiency  of  different  districts,  vessels, 
apparatus,  methods,  etc.  The  system  used  is  made  as  simple  as 
practicable  in  order  to  save  clerical  expense  and  to  avoid  obscuring 


ENGINEERING  AND   FISCAL   MATTERS.  87 

the  important  facts.  Separate  costs  are  kept  only  of  the  more 
important  features  and  classes  of  expenditures;  general  operating 
costs,  such  as  tender  service  and  administration,  are  not  distributed, 
and  liabilities  are  generally  not  charged. 

Expenditures  of  materials,  supplies,  and  labor  are  charged  the 
same  as  expenditures  of  money.  Each  principal  object  in  the 
Service  is  classed  as  a  feature,  such  as  district  offices,  depots,  tenders, 
light  vessels,  light  and  fog-signal  stations,  etc.,  and  a  set  of  account 
numbers,  ranging  from  10  to  24,  assigned  to  each  feature.  These 
account  numbers  are  arranged  in  continuous  order,  and  certain  blank 
numbers  are  allowed  each  feature  to  provide  for  future  extensions; 
thus  numbers  1  to  19  are  assigned  the  Commissioner's  office,  while 
only  15  are  in  use;  numbers  20  to  49  to  district  offices,  while  only  up 
to  No.  34  are  live  numbers.  The  numbers  are  of  course  purely  arbi- 
trary and  are  used  merely  for  convenience  and  abbreviation,  each 
number  referring  to  some  particular  item  of  cost;  for  example,  under 
the  Commissioner's  office  No.  1  stands  for  administrative  salaries, 
No.  2  for  technical  salaries,  No.  3  for  clerical  salaries,  No.  4  for  trans- 
portation of  persons,  No.  5  for  freight,  express,  and  cartage,  and  so 
on,  the  intention  being  to  charge  each  item  of  expenditure  to  an 
appropriate  number.  In  all  cases  the  numbers  are  so  arranged  as  to 
divide  the  costs  into  two  main  headings — maintenance  and  better- 
ments. The  cost  of  maintenance  includes  what  may  be  considered 
fixed  expenses,  such  as  salaries,  rations,  fuel,  and  general  expendable 
supplies.  The  item  of  betterments  includes  repairs,  improvements, 
and  new  construction  and  is  further  subdivided  to  show  the  cost  of 
labor  and  materials  separately  for  each  principal  object.  Cost 
reports  are  submitted  annually  by  all  the  districts,  and  these  are 
consolidated  in  the  Commissioner's  office  to  show  the  results  for  the 
entire  Service.  Such  statements  are  checked  with  the  money 
accounts  by  taking  into  consideration  the  actual  cash  expenditures 
and  the  difference  in  the  value  of  supplies  on  hand  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  year.  A  generalized  summary  of  costs  for  the  fiscal 
year  ended  June  30,  1915,  as  derived  from  this  cost-keeping  system 
appears  on  pages  88  to  90. 


88 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 


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Light  stations: 
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Minor  fixed  aids: 
Fifth  order  
Sixth  order  
Lens  lanterns  
Post  lights  
Other  lights  
Daymarks,  etc  

"o 

H 

ill 

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90 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,   1915. 


SUMMARY  OF  COSTS,  LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE,  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1915— 

Continued. 

AVERAGE  OPERATING  COSTS  OF  SELECTED  FEATURES. 


Average  cost  of— 

Sala- 
ries. 

Subsist- 
ence. 

Illumi- 
nants. 

Fuel. 

Other 
sup- 
plies. 

Inci- 
den- 
tals. 

Total 
mainte 
nance. 

Re- 
pairs 
ind  im- 
prove- 
ments. 

Total. 

District  office,  exclusive  of 
third  

S12,252 

• 

$2  025 

$131 

$14  408 

$14  4('S 

District  depot,  exclusive  of 
third  

6,831 

2  624 

922 

10  377 

$4  616 

14  993 

Large  tender,  Pacific  
Large  tender,  Atlantic. 

22,612 
18  6c5 

$5,945 
5  8°0 



$9,724 
8  025 

4,055 
3  063 

286 
213 

42,622 
35  846 

5,458 
3  740 

48,087 

OQ     C07 

Medium  tender  

14,  740 

4  604 

4,865 

2*399 

277 

26  885 

3  721 

30  606 

Exposed  light  vessel  

8  053 

1  941 

$77 

1  197 

'854 

99 

12  221 

3  693 

15*914 

Moderately    exposed    light 
vessel 

4  473 

1  231 

82 

280 

622 

10 

6  698 

3  784 

Lake  light  vessel  

3?  323 

950 

105 

300 

292 

22 

4*992 

1*218 

6  21O 

First-order     light     stations 
with  powerful  fog  signals.  . 
First-order     light     stations 
without  fog  signals  

2,465 
1,800 

430 
330 

135 
147 

277 
110 

248 
208 

23 
24 

3,578 
2  619 

1,032 
515 

4,610 
3  134 

Fourth-order  light  stations 
with  powerful  fog  signal  
Fourth-order  light  stations 
without  fog  signal 

1,430 
658 

287 
131 

65 
34 

272 
44 

195 
99 

17 
g 

2,226 
974 

632 
295 

2,898 
1  269 

Lens  lantern  

189 

21 

18 

5 

11 

245 

a  31 

*276 

Minor  li-rht,  river  districts 

90 

2 

3 

95 

a  l 

96 

Minor  light,  other  districts... 

121 

11 

5 

1 

138 

a  14 

152 

Hi^h-pressure  acetylene  light 
Hi^h-pressure  acetvlene  buoy 

36 

3 

30 
36 

2 

8 
651 

4 
1 

83 

88 

ol57 
a  15 

240 
c  103 

Low-pressure  acetylene  buoy 

130 

622 

152 

a  22 

c  174 

Oil-gas  buoy  

32 

621 

1 

54 

a  7 

cgi 

a  Figures  do  not  include  cost  of  establishment  cf  new  aids. 

6  Figures  include  transportation  charges  of  all  kinds,  such  as  freight  on  new  buoys,  etc. 

c  Figures  do  not  include  renewal  of  appendages. 

With  reference  to  the  cost  of  establishing  new  aids,  so  much  depends 
upon  the  local  conditions  that  little  definite  information  can  be  given. 
The  following  approximate  statements,  however,  furnish  some  idea  of 
the  prevailing  range.  Minor  lights  cost  from  about  $100  to  $10,000 
each;  lighthouses  with  quarters,  and  fog  signal  where  necessary,  from 
$40,000  to  $200,000  and  over  per  station.  The  light  and  fog  signal  at 
St.  George  Reef,  Cal.,  the  most  expensive  lighthouse  thus  far  con- 
structed in  this  country,  cost  nearly  $800,000;  it  is  on  Northwest 
Seal  Rock,  65  miles  off  the  northern  coast  of  California,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean;  construction  was  commenced  in  1883,  and  the  light  first 
exhibited  in  October,  1892.  Lighthouse  tenders  cost  from  $20,000 
to  $250,000  each,  depending  on  their  size  and  duty;  the  average 
medium-sized  tender  will  cost  now  about  $150,000.  A  first-class 
self-propelling  light  vessel  will  cost  about  $130,000;  smaller  and  less 
powerful  vessels  may  be  built  for  down  to  about  $70,000.  Lighted 
buoys  cost  from  about  $800  to  $5,000  each,  the  larger  and  more 
expensive  sizes  being  needed  for  outside  stations.  Whistling  buoys 
cost  about  $500  each,  and  bell  buoys  about  $400  each,  cans  and  nuns, 
including  also  iron  spars,  range  from  about  $50  to  $300  each,  depend- 
ing on  size,  while  first-class  wooden  spars  are  about  $35  each,  with 
corresponding  reductions  lor  smaller  classes.  The  cost  of  moorings 


EXHIBITS    OF    THE    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE.  91 

for  buoys  is  not  included  in  any  type  mentioned;  this  will  vary  from 
a  few  dollars  to  $500  and  over  per  buoy,  depending  on  the  location 
and  depth  of  water. 

26.  EXHIBITS  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  SERVICE. 

It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  for  many  years  to 
participate  in  various  national  expositions  and  similar  occasions,  by 
a  display  of  various  articles  and  equipment  used  in  its  work,  illus- 
trating some  of  the  progress  made,  the  apparatus  or  methods 
employed,  and  the  results  so  obtained.  As  a  part  of  the  collective 
exhibit  of  the  Department  of  Commerce,  similar  steps  were  taken  in 
connection  with  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exhibition,  held 
at  San  Francisco  during  the  current  year. 

The  Lighthouse  Service  was  allotted  approximately  3,300  square 
feet  of  space  in  the  north  end  of  the  Machinery  Building,  and  the 
sum  of  $4,750  from  the  appropriation  for  the  Government's  exhibit 
as  a  whole.  It  was  planned  to  make  the  exhibit  of  interest  from 
both  a  historical  and  practical  point  of  view. 

The  historic  features  included  a  collection  of  water  colors,  painted 
in  1859,  of  early  light  stations  on  the  Pacific;  the  old  10-pounder 
cannon  used  from  1855  to  1857  at  Point  Bonita,  Cal.,  being  the  first 
fog  signal  on  the  Pacific  coast;  the  first  Fresnel  lens  imported  into 
this  country  in  1841  for  use  at  Navesink,  N.  J.,  as  well  as  the  first 
lens  used  on  the  Pacific  coast  at  Alcatraz,  Cal.,  in  1854;  also  a  col- 
lection of  old  lamps  used  for  burning  sperm  oil,  lard  oil,  and  early 
plunger  and  air-pressure  lamps  for  kerosene. 

From  a  practical  standpoint,  the  exhibit  included  50  enlarged 
photographs  of  important  lighthouse  objects,  with  models  to  scale  of 
a  number  of  important  light  stations  and  vessels.  A  modern  flashing 
lens  and  lantern,  also  improved  forms  of  fog-bell  strikers  and  a  recent 
type  of  compressed-air  fog-signal,  using  a  6-inch  siren  were  shown. 
An  unusual  and  striking  feature  was  the  inclusion  of  a  portion  of  the 
illuminating  and  fog-signal  apparatus  for  the  new  lighthouse  now 
under  construction  at  Cape  St.  Elias,  Alaska,  embracing,  among  other 
equipment,  the  complete  parapet  deck,  watch  room,  and  helical  bar 
lantern,  a  massive  metal  structure  standing  29  feet  high  above  the  floor 
level  and  weighing  approximately  44,000  pounds.  Present  practice 
in  lamps  was  illustrated  by  incandescent  oil-vapor  outfits  of  35  and 
55  millimeter  mantles,  along  with  smaller  sizes  of  lens  and  post  lan- 
terns. Typical  sizes  and  types  of  buoys,  such  as  whistling,  bell,  cans, 
and  nuns,  with  ballast  balls,  sinkers,  and  anchors  were  also  shown. 

The  attendants  on  duty  were  experienced  lighthouse  keepers, 
selected  from  the  Pacific  coast  districts  for  details  of  about  three 
weeks  each,  who  were  present  in  uniform  to  care  for  and  explain  the 
apparatus. 


92 


UNITED    STATES    LIGHTHOUSE    SERVICE,    1915. 


I 


PAST  AND   PRESENT   OFFICERS  ' 


THE   SERVICE. 


93 


A  medal  of  honor  was  awarded^ih^  -exhioit' J  by  JtheJ  Exposition 
authorities,  and  silver  medals  were  awarded  to  those  officers  of  the 
Service  who  collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  the  exhibit.  Similar 
awards  and  tokens  have  been  granted  to  previous  exhibits  made  by 
the  Lighthouse  Service  in  past  years  at  other  expositions,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  International  Exposition  at  Vienna  in  1873, 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  the  Third  Inter- 
national Geographic  Congress  at  Venice  in  1881,  the  International 
Fisheries  Exhibition  at  London  in  1883,  the  Industrial  Exhibition  at 
Cincinnati  in  1884,  the  World's  Columbian  Exhibition  at  Chicago 
in  1893,  the  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition  at  Omaha  in  1898,  the 
Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buffalo  in  1901,  and  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  Exposition  at  St.  Louis  in  1904. 

27.  PAST  AND  PRESENT  OFFICERS  OF  THE   SERVICE. 

The  names  of  officers  in  direct  charge  of  the  operations  of  the 
Lighthouse  Service,  from  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  Federal 
Government  to  the  present,  with  their  respective  dates  of  service, 
are  given  in  the  table  below.  In  colonial  days  the  management  of 
the  lights  was  in  the  hands  of  the  local  authorities  of  the  various 
colonies  and  provinces.  It  should  be  observed  that  up  to  1820  many 
matters,  involving  even  routine  business,  were  approved  personally 
by  the  President. 


Name. 

From— 

To— 

PRIOR  TO  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  BOARD. 

Alexander  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  

Aug.     7,  1789 

May     8,  1792 

Tench  Coxe,  Commissioner  of  the  Revenue. 

May     9,  1792 

Jan.    21,  1798 

William  Miller,  jr.,  Commissioner  of  the  Revenue 

Jan.    22,1798 

Apr.     6,  1802 

Albert  Gallatin,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 

Apr.     7  1802 

July  24  1813 

Samuel  H.  Smith,  Commissioner  of  the  Revenue 

July  31,1813 

Dec.  31,1819 

Stephen  Pleasonton,  Fifth  Auditor  of  the  Treasury  

Jan.     7,  1820 

Oct.     8,  1852 

CHAIRMEN  OF  LIGHTHOUSE  BOARD. 

William  B.  Shubrick,  captain,  U.  S.  Navy  ... 

Oct.     9,  1852 

Feb.     7,  1859 

Lawrence  Kearney,  captain,  U.  S.  Navy 

Feb.     7,  1859 

June    6,  1859 

William  B.  Shubrick,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy  

June    6,  1859 

Oct.   30,1871 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  LL.  D.  (Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution)  
John  Rodgers,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy... 

Oct.    30,1871 
June  23,1878 

May   13,1878 
May     5,  1882 

Robert  H.  Wyman,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy  

June    5.  1882 

Dec.     2,  1882 

Stephen  C.  Rowan,  vice  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy.  .                                      

Jan.    18,1883 

Feb.  26,1889 

David  P.  Harmony,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy 

Feb.  27,1889 

May  29,1891 

James  M.  Greer,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy 

June    1,  1891 

Dec.     1,  1894 

John  G.  Walker,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy  

Dec.     4,  1894 

Mar.  23,1897 

Winfield  S.  Schley,  commodore,  U.  S.  Navy.                                            

Apr.     5,  1897 

Mar.  25,1898 

F.  V.  McNair,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy 

Apr.     4,1898 

July     5,  1898 

Rush  R.  Wallace,  commodore  U.  S.  Navy 

Jnly  11,1898 

Oct.     3,  1898 

Francis  J.  Higginson,  commodore,  U.  S.  Navv  
Norman  H.  Farquhar,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy  
George  C.  Remey,  rear  admiral  U.  S.  Navy 

Oct.     3,  1898 
May     2,  1901 
May     6,  1902 

Apr.  22,1901 

May     6,  1902 
Aug.    8,  1903 

John  J.  Read,  rear  admiral  U  S  Navv 

Aug.    8,  1903 

June  17  1904 

Robley  D.  Evans,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy  

June  20,1904 

Jan.     5,  1905 

Benjamin  P.  Lamberton,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy  
George  C.  Reiter,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy 

Jan.      6,  1905 
Feb.  25,1906 

Feb.  25,1906 
Dec.  31,1907 

A.  Marix,  rear  admiral,  U.  S.  Navy 

Jan.      6,  1908 

June  30  1910 

COMMISSIONER   OF  UGIITHOUSrS. 

George  R  .  Putnam  

July     1,  1910 

94 


UNITED   STATES   LIGHTHOUSE   SERVICE,   1915. 


The  present  principal  officers  of  the  Service  are  George  R.  Putnam, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses;  John  S.  Conway, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Deputy  Commissioner;  H.  B.  Bowerman,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  chief  constructing  engineer;  and  Edward  C.  Gillette, 
superintendent  of  naval  construction. 

The  lighthouse  inspectors,  with  the  duty  or  district  assigned  to 
each,  were  as  follows  on  December  1,  1915: 


District. 

Inspector. 

District. 

Inspector. 

General  duty  .. 

Everett  M.  Trott. 

Twelfth  

Lewis  M.  Stoddard. 

First 

Carl  E.  Sherman 

Thirteenth  

Maj.  George  M.  Hoffman,  Corps  of 

Second  .. 

Ralph  H.  Goddard. 

Engineers,  U.S.  Army. 

Third  

Joseph  T.  Yates. 

Fourteenth  .... 

Col.  Lansing  II.  Bea^h,  Corps  of 

Fourth 

Thomas  J.  Rout, 

Engineers,  U.  S.  Army;  M.  Am. 

Fifth  

Harold  D.  King. 

Soc.  C.  E. 

Sixth 

Henry  L  Beck 

Fifteenth 

Mai    Wildurr  Willing,  Corps  of 

Seventh 

Wm  W.  Demeritt. 

Engineers.  U.  S.  Army. 

Eighth.  .  . 

Benj.  B.  Dorry. 

Sixteenth  

Walter  C.  Dibrell. 

Ninth  .  . 

Camille  A.  Lamy. 

Seventeenth  

Robert  Warrack. 

Tenth 

Roscoe  House. 

Eighteenth  

Harry  W.  Rhodes. 

Eleventh  

Edward   L.   Woodruff,   M.   Am. 

Nineteenth  

Arthur  E.  Arledge,  Assoc.  M.  Am. 

Soc.  C.  E. 

Soc.C.  E. 

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